School of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Debre Markos Institute of Technology

Debre Markos University
Debre Markos Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Power System Protection and Control (ECEg4232)
Chapter One: 1. Power system protection

By: Haymanot T (MSc).
Email: haymanot_takele@dmu.edu.et
YouTube: Enijera Tube
Telegram page: Key&Light
22-7-16
What is a Power System? What are components
 An electric power system is defined as a network of power system ?
of electrical components used to supply, transfer,
and consume electric power. Generation
 The supply is done through some form of Transmission

generation (e.g. a power plant), the transfer is done
through a transmission (via a transmission line)
and distribution system, and
Sub _ Transmission
The consumption can be through residential
applications such as powering the lights or air
conditioning in your home, or via industrial Distribution
applications such as the operation of large
motors.
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3 Introduction
Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that
deals with the protection of electrical power systems from faults
through the disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical
network.
A power system is designed to generate electric power in sufficient
quantity,
To meet the present and estimated future demands of the users in a
particular area,
To transmit it to the areas where it will be used and then distribute
it within that area, on a continuous basis.
To keep the users satisfied with reliable service, the whole system
must be kept in operation continuously without
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This can be achieved in two ways: Cont’d
The first way is to implement a system adopting components,

which should not fail and requires the least or nil maintenance to
maintain the continuity of service.
The second option is to predict any possible effects or failures that
may cause long term shutdown of a system, which in turn may
take longer time to bring back the system to its normal course.
Special equipment is normally installed to detect such kind of
failures (also called ‘faults’) is referred to as ‘protective equipment
or protective relay’ and the system that uses such equipment is
termed as ‘protection system’.
A protective relay is the device, which gives instruction to
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disconnect a faulty part of the system.
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Basic requirements of protection
A protection apparatus has three main functions/duties:
1. Safeguard the entire system to maintain continuity of
supply
2. Minimize damage and repair costs where it senses fault
3. Ensure safety of personnel.
These requirements are necessary,
Firstly for early detection and localization of faults, and
Secondly for prompt removal of faulty equipment from
service.
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Cont’d
In order to carry out the above duties, protection must have the following
qualities:
Selectivity: To detect and isolate the faulty item only.
Stability: To leave all healthy circuits intact to ensure continuity or supply.
Sensitivity: To detect even the smallest fault, current or system abnormalities
and operate correctly at its setting before the fault causes irreparable damage.
Speed: To operate speedily when it is called upon to do so, thereby minimizing
damage to the surroundings and ensuring safety to personnel.
To meet all of the above requirements, protection must be reliable which
means it must be:
Dependable: It must trip when called upon to do so.
Secure:
6 It must not trip when it is not supposed
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Basic Components
1. Voltage transformers and current transformers: To monitor and give accurate feedback
about the healthiness of a system.
2. Relays: To convert the signals from the monitoring devices, and give instructions to open a
circuit under faulty conditions or to give alarms when the equipment being protected, is
approaching towards possible destruction.
3. Fuses: Self-destructing to save the downstream equipment being protected.
4. Circuit breakers : which are used to isolate the faulty circuits, are capable of carrying these
fault currents until the fault currents are totally cleared. The circuit breakers are the main
isolating devices in a distribution system, which can be said to directly protect the system.
5. Batteries: These give uninterrupted power source to the relays and breakers that is
independent of the main power source being protected
Faults and Abnormal Operating Conditions
Shunt Faults (Short Circuits)

When the path of the load current is cut
short because of breakdown of insulation,
we say that a “short circuit” has occurred.
The insulation can break down for a
variety of reasons.
Such faults due to insulation flashover are
many times temporary, i.e. if the arc path
is allowed to deionize, by interrupting the
electrical supply for a sufficient period,
then the arc does not re-strike after the
supply8 is restored.
Cont’d
This process of interruption by intentional re-energization known

as re-closure.
In low-voltage systems up to three re-closures are attempted, after
which the circuit breaker is locked out.
The repeated attempts at re-closure, at times, help in burning out
the object which is causing the breakdown of insulation. The re-
closure may also be done automatically.
In EHV systems, where the damage due to short circuit may be
very large and the system stability at stake, only one re-closure is
allowed.
Causes of shunt fault
Shunt faults are basically due to failure of insulation.
The insulation may fail because of its own weakening, or it may fail due to
overvoltage.
The weakening of insulation may be due to one or more of the following factors:
Ageing
Temperature
Rain, hail, snow
Chemical pollution
Foreign objects
Other causes
The overvoltage may be either internal (due to switching) or external (due to
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Classification of shunt faults
Phase Faults and Ground Faults

Those faults, which involve only one of the phase
conductors and ground, are called ground faults.
Faults involving two or more phase conductors, with
or without ground, are called phase faults.
Single line to ground faults (L-G) are the most likely
whereas the fault due to simultaneous short circuit b/n
all the three lines, known as the three-phase fault (L-
L-L), is the least likely. This is depicted in Table 1.1.
Further, the probability of faults on different elements
of the power system are different. The fault statistics
is shown
11 in Table 1.2.
Phasor Diagram of Voltages & Currents During Various Faults

Cont’d

Cont’d
Series Faults
Series faults are nothing but a break in the path of current.
Normally such faults do not result into catastrophes except when the
broken conductor touches other conductor or some grounded part.
In practice that most of the open conductor faults sooner or later
develop into some or the other short-circuit fault.
There are some instances where an open circuit can have dangerous
consequences.
For example, the secondary circuit of a current transformer and the field
circuit of a dc machine if open circuited, can have dangerous
consequences.
Should Protective Relays Trip During Abnormal Operating Conditions?
How the protective system should respond to the abnormal operating

conditions needs careful consideration.
It may or may not be required to take cognizance of the abnormal
operating condition.
Some examples of abnormal operating conditions are starting currents
of motors, inrush currents of transformers and stable power swings.
These currents may qualify as faults, but there is no need to provide
protection from them. Thus, the protective system must be able to
discriminate between the normal operating conditions and the
abnormal
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Can Protective Relays Prevent Faults?
It can be seen from the above discussion that protective relays cannot
prevent faults. To a certain extent, faults can be prevented by using the
properly designed and maintained equipment. However, it is not
possible to totally prevent the occurrence of faults.
What are Protective Relays Supposed to Do?
The protective relays are supposed to detect the fault with the help of
current and voltage transformers, and selectively remove only the
faulty part from the rest of the system by tripping an appropriate
number of circuit breakers.
This, the relay has to do with utmost sensitivity, selectivity and
speed.
Isolated Power System
The protection of an isolated power system is simpler because

firstly, there is no concentration of generating capacity and
secondly, a single synchronous alternator does not suffer from the
stability problem as faced by a multi-machine system.
Further, when there is a fault and the protective relays remove the
generator from the system, the system may suffer from a blackout
unless
17 there is a standby source of power.
Interconnected Power System
An interconnected power system
has evolved because it is more
reliable than an isolated power
system In case of disruption in
one part of the system, power can
be fed from alternate paths, thus,
maintaining continuity of service.
An interconnected power system
also makes it possible to
implement an economic load
dispatch.
Cont’d
For bulk transmission of power, voltage levels of the order
of 400 kV or higher are used. At the receiving end, the
voltage is stepped down to the distribution level, which is
further stepped down before it reaches the consumers.
It can be seen that the EHV lines are the tie lines which
interconnect two or more generators whereas the low
voltage lines are radial in nature which terminate in loads at
the remote ends. There is interconnection at various EHV
voltage levels.
A Protection System and Its Attributes
 Figure 1.8 shows a protection system for the distance protection of a transmission
line, consisting of a CT and a PT, a relay and its associated circuit breaker.

System Transducers
Current transformers and voltage transformers form a very
important link b/n the power system & the protective system.
These transducers basically extract the information regarding
current and voltage from the power system under protection and
pass it on to the protective relays.
While doing this, they insulate the low-voltage protective system
(both personnel and protective apparatus) from the high-voltage
power system.

Current Transformer:
The current transformer has two jobs to do:
Firstly, it steps down the current to such levels that it can be easily handled by
the relay current coil, in practice are 5 A and 1 A.
Secondly, it isolates the relay circuitry from the high voltage of the EHV system.
It may be pointed out here, that current transformers are used for metering purposes
as well. There is a very important difference between a metering CT and a
protection CT.
A metering CT is so designed (proportioned) that in case of faults it will saturate
and thus save the instrument connected to its secondary from damage due to
excessive current.
A protective
22 CT Key&Light
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Cont’d
23 Key&Light Figure 1.10 Current transformer DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202

Voltage/Potential Transformer
The voltage transformer steps down the
high voltage of the line to a level safe
enough for the relaying system (pressure
coil of relay) and personnel to handle.
The standard secondary voltage on line-
to-line basis is 110 V.
This helps in standardizing the protective
relaying equipment irrespective of the
value of the primary EHV adopted.
A conventional electromagnetic VT is
shown in Figure 1.12. The VT suffers
from24ratio and phase angle errors.
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Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker is an electrically operated switch,
which is capable of safely making, as well as breaking,
short-circuits currents. The circuit breaker is operated by
the output of the associated relay. When the circuit
breaker is in the closed condition, its contacts are held
closed by the tension of the closing spring.
When the trip coil is energized, it releases a latch, causing
the stored energy in the closing spring to bring about a
quick opening operation.
Trip Circuit of a CB: The circuit breaker contacts are in
a closed position by the force of a spring. In order to trip
the circuit breaker, it is necessary to release a latch either
manually or by energizing the trip-coil of the circuit
breaker.
When the relay operates, the trip-coil gets energized and
the circuit breaker quickly parts its contacts.
Organization of Protection
The protection is organized in a very logical
fashion. The idea is to provide a ring of security
around each and every element of the power
system.
If there is any fault within this ring, the relays
associated with it must trip all the allied circuit
breakers so as to remove the faulty element from
the rest of the power system.
This “ring of security” is called the zone of
protection. This is depicted in Figure 1.14 with
the help of a simple differential relay for the
protection of a transformer.
Cont’d
Faults within the zone are termed internal faults whereas the
faults outside the zone are called external faults.
External faults are also known as through faults. Ideally, a relay
looking after the protection of a zone should operate only for
internal faults.
It should restrain from operating for external faults.
The farthest point from the relay location, which is still inside the
zone, is called the reach point. The distance between the relay
location and the reach point is termed the reach of the relay.
Components to be protected
 Generators and motors
 Transformers
 Bus bars
 Transmission lines

Control and protection
Why do we need to control?
 Control actions needed

Automatic
 Equipment Protection - Disconnection at fault
 Voltage control - Move a tap changer in a transformer
Human intervention
 Frequency control- Increase output in hydro plant
 Voltage control - Connect capacitor bank
Protective zone
 Definition: Protection zone is defined as the part of
the power system which is protected by a certain
protective scheme.
 It is established around each power system
equipment.
 When the fault occurs on any of the protection zones
then only the CBs within that zone will be opened.
 Thus, only the faulty element will be isolated without
disturbing the rest of the system.
 The protection zone cover the entire power system,
and no part of the equipment is left unprotected.
 It usually consists one or more element of the power system.Cont…
 The protection zone of the power system mainly depends upon
 Machine rating,
 Its location,
 The probability of faults
 Abnormal condition of
the equipment
 Zone of protection is the place or the distance that the protective
equipment can protect easily
 In power systems, all power system elements Cont…
must be covered by at least one zone
 The CT provides the ability to detect a fault
inside the zone
 The CBs provide the ability to isolate the
fault Important elements must be covered at
least by 2 zones
 A zone boundary is usually defined by a CT
and a CB.
 Zones must overlap to prevent any element
from being unprotected.
Overlapping Zone of Power System
 No protective zone overlapping gives failure of equipment
 This results no circuit breaker would be tripped
• The overlap must
be finite but
small to minimize
the
likelihood of a fault
inside this
region.

Primary and Back-up Protection
Primary Protection
 The main protection or primary
protection is the first line protection
which provides quick-acting and
selective clearing of a fault within
the boundary of the circuit section
or element it protects.
 The main protection is provided in
each section of an electrical
installation.
Backup Protection
 Provides the back up to the main protection whenever it fails in operation or its cut
• Sometimes for simplification, the
out for repairs.
backup protection has a low
 Is essential for the proper working of the electrical system. sensitivity and operated over a
limited backup zone
 It is the second line of defense which isolates the faulty section of the system in case
the main protection fail to function properly.
 The failure of the primary protection occurs because of the failure of the DC supply
circuit, current or voltage supply to relay circuit, relay protective circuit or because of
the circuit breaker.
 It may be provided either on the same CB which would be normally opened by the
main protection or in the different circuit breaker.
 The backup protection is mainly used where the main protection of the adjacent
circuit is unable to backup the main protection of the given circuit.
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
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Primary and Back-up Protection
Example: Consider the remote backup protection is provided by a

small time graded relay, as shown in the figure below.
Let F be the fault occur on relay R4.
The relay R4 operates the CB at D and isolate the faulty section.
Now if the circuit breaker D fails to operate, the faulty section
would be isolated by the operation of the relay R3 at C.
 The use of the backup protection depends on
the economics and technical consideration.
 The backup protection usually for the
economic reason not so fast as the
main protection.
Protective Relays: Introduction
 In a power system consisting of generators, transformers, transmission

and distribution circuits, it is inevitable that sooner or later some failure
will occur somewhere in the system.
 When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must be quickly
detected and disconnected from the system.
 There are two principal reasons for it.
 Firstly, if the fault is not cleared quickly, it may cause unnecessary
interruption of service to the customers.
 Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulted apparatus limits the amount of
damage to it and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the
system.
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Cont’d
 The detection of faults and disconnection of a faulty

section can be achieved by using fuses or relays in
conjunction with circuit breakers.
 Fuse performs both detection and interruption
functions automatically but it is limited for low
voltage circuit only.
 For high voltage applications, relays and circuit
breakers are employed to serve the desired function of
automatic
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protective
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Protective relay
 A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the
operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from
the rest of the system.
 The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different
under normal and fault conditions.
 The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are
voltage, current, frequency and phase angle.
 Through the changes in one or more of these quantities, the faults
signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays.
 Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of
the breaker.
 This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection of the
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Cont’d
 The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts:
(i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer

(C.T.) which is connected in series with the line to be
protected.
(ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the

relay operating coil.
(iii)Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either A.C or

D.C
 It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit

breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
Operation Steps:
 When a short circuit occurs at point F, the current
flowing in the line increases to an enormous
value.
 This results in a heavy current flow through the
relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing
its contacts.
 This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker,
making the circuit breaker open and isolating the
faulty section from the rest of the system.
 In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the
circuit
42
equipment from damage and normal
Basic Relays
 Most of the relays used in the power system
operate by feature of the current and/or voltage
supplied by current and voltage transformers
connected in various combinations to the system
element that is to be protected.
 Most of the relays in service are of electro-
mechanical type.
 The electro-mechanical relays work on the
following two main operating principles :
 Electromagnetic attraction
 Electromagnetic
43 induction
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Electromagnetic attraction Relay
 Operate by feature of an armature being attracted to the
poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn in to a
solenoid.
 Such relays may be actuated by D.C or A.C quantities.
 There are three important types of this relay:
 Attracted armature type relay
 Solenoid type relay
 Balanced beam type relay
Attracted armature type relay
 It Consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C
and pivoted laminated armature.
 The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a
pair of spring contact fingers at its free end.
 Under normal condition, the current through the relay coil is
such that counterweight holds the armature in the position
shown.
 During the fault occurs, the current through the relay coil
increases the relay armature is attracted upwards.
 The contacts in the armature close a circuit that actuates the
circuit breaker to open the line from the system.
 The minimum current at the relay armature is attracted to
close45
the trip circuit is pickup currents.
Solenoid type relay
 It Consists of a solenoid and a movable iron
plunger as shown
 Under normal operating condition, the current
through the relay coil C is such that it holds the
plunger by gravity or spring in the position
shown.
 On the occurrence of fault, the current through
becomes more than pickup value, causing to be
attracted to solenoid. The upward movement of
plunger closes the trip circuit, thus opening the
circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit.
Balanced beam type relay
 It Consists of an iron armature fastened to a
balance beam.
 Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil is such that the beam is
held in the horizontal position by the spring.
 When the fault occurs, the current through the
relay coil becomes grater than the pickup value
and the beam is attracted to close the trip
circuit.
 This causes the opening of the circuit breaker
to isolate
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Induction relay
 Operate on the principle of magnetic induction and
are widely used for protective relaying involving
A.C quantities.
 It consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in
two alternating magnetic fields of the same
frequency but displaced in time and space.
 A torque is produced in the disk by the interaction
of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
induced in the disc by the other field.
 To understand the production of torque in an induction
relay:
 The two ac fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2 differing in phase by an
angle a induce E.m.fs in the disc and causes the
circulation of eddy currents i1 and i2.
 These currents lag behind their respective fluxes by 90
degrees.
 Referring figure (ii) where the two ac fluxes and induced
currents are shown:
ϕ1= ϕ1maxsinwt
ϕ2 = ϕ2maxsin(wt + α).
 Where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes
and ϕ2
49 leads ϕ1 by an angle α.
 Assuming that the rotor currents flow
have negligible self inductance, the rotor
currents will be in phase with their
voltages.
 The second figure (ii) shows that the
two forces are in opposition. Therefore
the net force at the instant considered is:

 Where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are the r.m.s values of the fluxes
 The following points may be noted from last equation (i):
 The greater the phase angle between the fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to the
disc. Obviously the maximum force will be produced when the two forces are
orthogonal, a=90 degrees
 The net force is same at every instant. This doesn’t depend on the assumption made in
arriving at expression i.
 The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends upon
which flux is leading.
 The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase
difference in the fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relays:
 Shaded pole structure
 Watt-hour meter or doubly winding structure
 Induction
51 cupKey&Light
structure DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
Shaded pole structure
 It Consists of a pivoted aluminum disc free to rotate in
the air gap of an electromagnet.
 One of half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a
copper band known as shading ring.
 The alternative flux ϕs in the shaded portion of the poles
will, owing to the reaction of the current induced in the
ring, lag behind the flux ϕu in the un shaded portion by
an angle α.
 These two ac fluxes differing in phase will produce the
necessary torque to rotate the disc.
 The driving torque T is given by:
 Assuming the fluxes ϕu and ϕs to be proportional to the
52
current I, in the relay
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Watt-hour meter or doubly winding structure
 Consists of a pivoted aluminum disc arranged to rotate
freely between the poles of the two electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet carries two windings, the
primary and the secondary.
 The primary winding carries the relay current I1 while
the secondary winding is connected to the winding of the
lower magnet.
 The primary current induces emf in the secondary and so
circulates a current I2 in it.
 The two fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2 differing in phase by α will
produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to
ϕ1ϕ2sinα
Induction cup structure
 Most closely resembles an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is stationary,
only the rotor conductor portion being free to rotate.
 The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis.
 The rotating field is produced by two pairs of coils wound on four poles as shown.
The rotating field induces currents in the cup to provide the necessary driving torque.
 Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-
pole
or the Watt-hour meter structures.
 Therefore, this type of relay has very high speed and may have an operating time less
then 0·1 second.

Relay Timing
 An important characteristics of a relay is its time of operation-
length of time from the instant when the actuating element is
energized to the instant when the relay contacts is closed.
 Controlling the operating time of a relay is necessary and can be
done by electromechanical accessories:
 Instantaneous relay
 Invers time relay
 Definite time lag relay

Instantaneous relay
 A relay in which no intentional time delay is provided.

 The relay contacts are closed immediately after current in
the relay coil exceeds the minimum calibrated value.
 It has operating time less than 0.1s
 Is effective where the impedance between the relay and the
source is small compared to the protected section
impedance.
 The operating time may be best expressed in terms of
cycles
56 based on the power system frequency.
Invers time relay
 A relay in which the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the
actuating quantity.
 At values of current less than pickup, the relay never
operates.
 At higher values the time of operation of the relay
deceases steadily with the increase of current.
 This can be achieved by associating mechanical
accessories with relays.
 In induction relays it can be done by having
permanent magnets (drag magnet) so that the motion
of the disk is dragged.
Definite time lag relay
 There is a definite time elapsed between the instant of pickup and

the closing of relay contacts.
 This particular time setting is independent of the amount of current
through the relay coil-being the same for all values of current in
excess of the pickup current.

Important Terms
 Pickup current: the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate. The current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not
operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed position.
 When the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay
operates to energize the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.
 Current setting: adjusting the pickup current of a relay and can be achieved by the
use of tapings on the relay operating coil. The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as
shown in Fig. below, the plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the relay
coil.

Cont’d
∴ Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. ×Current setting

 For example, suppose that an over current relay having current setting of
125% is connected to a supply circuit through a current transformer of
400/5. The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5 amperes. Therefore, the
pick-up value will be 25% more than 5 A i.e. 5 ×1·25 = 6·25 A. It means
that with above current setting, the relay will actually operate for a relay
coil current equal to or greater than 6·25 A.
 The current plug setting usually from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for
over current relay and 10% to 70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relay.

Cont’d
 Plug Setting Multiplier: the ratio of fault current in relay coil to
the pickup current.

Cont’d
 Time Setting Multiplier: adjusting the time of operation of a relay. The
time-setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec (see Fig.
below).
 These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from
time/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time. Thus if the time setting is
0·1 and the time obtained from the time/P.S.M. curve is 3 seconds, then
actual relay operating time = 3 ×0·1 = 0·3 second.

Time/P.S.M. Curve
 Figure. below shows the curve between time of

operation and plug setting multiplier of a typical
relay.
 The horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-
setting multiplier and represents the number of
times the relay current is in excess of the current
setting.
 The vertical scale is marked in terms of the time
required for relay operation. If the P.S.M. is 10, then
the time of operation (from the curve) is 3 seconds.
 The actual time of operation is obtained by
multiplying this time by the time-setting multiplier.
Calculation of Relay Operating Time
 In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be known
:
(a) Time/P.S.M. curve (b) Current setting (c) Time setting
(d) Fault current (e) Current transformer ratio.
The procedure for calculating the actual relay operating time is as follows :
(i) Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the current transformer
ratio.
(ii) Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting i.e. calculate the P.S.M.
(iii) From the Time/P.S.M. curve of the relay, read off the time of operation for the
calculated P.S.M.
(iv) Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of the relay by
time setting
64 multiplier
Key&Light in use. DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
Cont’d

Functional relay types
 Based on the function they are called upon to perform in the
protection of the power system, relays can be classified as:
 Induction type overcurrent relays
 Induction type reverse power relays
 Distance relays
 Differential relays
 Translay scheme

Induction type over current relays(non directional)
 Works on the induction principle and
initiates corrective measures when current
in the circuit exceeds the predetermined
value.
 The actuating source is a current in the
circuit supplied to the relay from a C.T.
This relay are used on a.c circuits only
and can operate for fault current flow in
either directions.

Induction type reverse power relays
 Operates when power in the circuit flows in a

specific direction.
 Obtains its operating torque by the interaction
of magnetic fields derived from both voltage
and current source of the circuit it protects.
 This type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and
the direction of the torque set up in the relay
depends upon the direction of the current
relative to the voltage with which it is
associated.
 The interaction of fluxes f1 and f2 with the eddy currents
induced in the disk produces a driving torque given by:

Induction type directional overcurrent relays
 The directional power relay is not suitable under short circuit

conditions because of the lowering of the system voltage and
hence of a smaller torque developed that is not sufficient to turn
the disc.

 Directional Element: it is essentially a directional power relay which
operates when power flows in a specific direction.
 The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer to the system voltage.
 The current coil of the element is energized through the CT by the
circuit current.
 Non-directional Element: it is an over current element similar in all
respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay.
 Operation: when a short circuit occurs there is a tendency for the current
or power to flow in the reverse direction.

Distance/Impedance Relay
 Type of relay in which the operation is governed by the ratio of applied
voltage to current in the protected circuit.
 In these relays, the torque produced by the current element is opposed by
that produced by the voltage element.
 The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than a predetermined
value.

Differential Relay
 Relays discussed before will not decide on heavy load conditions and minor fault
conditions.
 A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.

Protection of Bus-bars

Busbar Protection
Busbars in the generating stations and sub-stations form important link between
the incoming and outgoing circuits.
If a fault occurs on a busbar, considerable damage and disruption of supply will
occur unless some form of quick-acting automatic protection is provided to
isolate the faulty busbar.
The busbar zone, for the purpose of protection, includes not only the busbars
themselves but also the isolating switches, circuit breakers and the associated
connections.
In the event of fault on any section of the busbar, all the circuit equipment
connected to that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation.
The standard of construction for busbars has been very high, with the
result that bus faults are extremely rare.
However, the possibility of damage and service interruption from even a
rare bus fault is so great that more attention is now given to this form of
protection.
Improved relaying methods have been developed, reducing the possibility
of incorrect operation.
The two most commonly used schemes for busbar protection are :
Differential protection
Fault bus protection

(i) Differential protection.
 The basic method for busbar protection
is the differential scheme in which
currents entering and leaving the bus
are totalized.
 During normal load condition, the sum
of these currents is equal to zero.
 When a fault occurs, the fault current
upsets the balance and produces a
differential current to operate a relay
 The busbar is fed by a generator and supplies
load to two lines.
The secondary's of current transformers
in the generator lead, in line 1 and in line
2 are all connected in parallel.
The protective relay is connected across
this parallel connection.
All CTs must be of the same ratio in the
scheme regardless of the capacities of
the various circuits. If a fault occurs within the protected
Under normal load conditions or zone, the currents entering the bus will
external fault conditions, the and no no longer be equal to those leaving it.
current flows through the relay. The difference of these currents will flow
through the relay and cause the opening
of the generator, circuit breaker and each
of the line circuit breakers.
(ii) Fault Bus protection.
 It is possible to design a station so that the faults that develop are
mostly earth-faults.
 This can be achieved by providing earthed metal barrier (known as
fault bus) surrounding each conductor throughout its entire length in
the bus structure.
 With this arrangement, every fault that might occur must involve a
connection between a conductor and an earthed metal part.
 By directing the flow of earth-fault current, it is possible to detect the
faults and determine their location.
 This type of protection is known as fault bus protection.
Protection of Transformers

Transformers are static devices, totally enclosed and generally oil immersed.
Therefore, chances of faults occurring on them are very rare.
However, the consequences of even a rare fault may be very serious unless the
transformer is quickly disconnected from the system.
This necessitates to provide adequate automatic protection for transformers
against possible faults.
Small distribution transformers are usually connected to the supply system
through series fuses instead of circuit breakers.
Consequently, no automatic protective relay equipment is required.
However, the probability of faults on power transformers is undoubtedly more
and hence automatic protection is absolutely necessary.
Common transformer faults.
 As compared with generators, in which many abnormal conditions may arise,
power transformers may suffer only from
i) open circuits
ii)Overheating
iii)Winding short-circuits e.g. earth-faults, phase-to-phase faults and inter-turn faults.
 An open circuit in one phase of a 3-phase transformer may cause undesirable
heating.
 In practice, relay protection is not provided against open circuits because this
condition is relatively harmless.
 On the occurrence of such a fault, the transformer can be disconnected manually
from the system
 Overheating of the transformer is usually caused by sustained overloads or
short-circuits and very occasionally by the failure of the cooling system.
 The relay protection is also not provided against this contingency and
thermal accessories are generally used to sound an alarm or control the
banks of fans.
 Winding short-circuits (also called internal faults) on the transformer arise
from deterioration of winding insulation due to overheating or mechanical
injury.
 When an internal fault occurs, the transformer must be disconnected
quickly from the system because a prolonged arc in the transformer may
cause oil fire.
 Therefore, relay protection is absolutely necessary for internal faults.
Protection Systems for Transformers
 For protection of generators, Merz-Price circulating-current system is
unquestionably the most satisfactory.
 Though this is largely true of transformer protection, there are cases
where circulating current system offers no particular advantage over
other systems or
 Impracticable on account of the troublesome conditions imposed by the
wide variety of voltages, currents and earthing conditions invariably
associated with power transformers.
 Under such circumstances, alternative protective systems are used which
in many cases are as effective as the circulating-current system.
 The principal relays & systems used for transformer protection are :
i. Buchholz devices providing protection against all kinds of
incipient faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation
failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky
joints etc.
ii.Earth-fault relays providing protection against earth-faults only.
iii. Overcurrent relays providing protection mainly against phase-to-
phase faults and overloading.
iv. Differential system (or circulating-current system) providing
protection against both earth and phase faults.
 The complete protection of transformer usually requires the
combination of these systems.
 Choice of a particular combination of systems may depend upon
several factors such as
(a)Size of the transformer
(b)Type of cooling
(c)Location of transformer in the network
(d)Nature of load supplied and
(e)Importance of service for which transformer is required.

Buchholz Relay
 Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in
oil immersed transformers for protection against
all kinds of faults.
 Named after its inventor, Buchholz, it is used to
give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e. slow-
developing) faults in the transformer and to
disconnect the transformer from the supply in the
event of severe internal faults.
 It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the
conservator to the main tank as shown in Fig.
 It is a universal practice to use Buchholz Construction
relays on all such oil immersed transformers

having ratings in (Its use for oil immersed
transformers of rating less than 750 kVA is
generally uneconomical. ) excess of 750kVA.
 It takes the form of a domed vessel placed in
the connecting pipe between the main tank
and the conservator.
 The device has two elements.
 The upper element consists of a mercury type
switch attached to a float.

 The lower element contains a mercury
switch mounted on a hinged type flap
located in the direct path of the flow of oil
from the transformer to the conservator.
 The upper element closes an alarm circuit
during incipient faults whereas the lower
element is arranged to trip the circuit breaker
in case of severe internal faults.

Operation.
 The operation of Buchholz relay is as follows :
(i) In case of incipient faults within the transformer, the heat
due to fault causes the decomposition of some transformer
oil in the main tank.
 The products of decomposition contain more than 70% of
hydrogen gas.
 The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into the
conservator and in the process gets entrapped in the upper
part of relay chamber.
 When a predetermined amount of gas gets accumulated, it
exerts sufficient pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and
close the contacts of mercury switch attached to it. This
completes the alarm circuit to sound an *alarm.
(i)If a serious fault occurs in the transformer,
an enormous amount of gas is generated in
the main tank.
 The oil in the main tank rushes towards the
conservator via the Buchholz relay and in
doing so tilts the flap to close the contacts of
mercury switch.
 This completes the trip circuit to open the
circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

 Advantages
(i) It is the simplest form of transformer
protection.
(ii)It detects the incipient faults at a stage much
earlier than is possible with other forms of
protection.
Disadvantages
(i) It can only be used with oil immersed
transformers equipped with conservator tanks.
(ii) The device can detect only faults below oil
level in the transformer. Therefore, separate
protection is needed for connecting cables.
Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection
 An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of winding insulation
to earth.
 The resulting leakage current is considerably less than the short-circuit
current.
 The earth-fault may continue for a long time and cause considerable
damage before it ultimately develops into a short-circuit and removed
from the system..

 Under these circumstances, it is profitable to employ earth-fault
relays in order to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault or leak in
the early stage.
 An earth-fault relay is essentially an overcurrent relay of low
setting and operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak develops.
 One method of protection against earth-faults in a transformer is
the *core-balance leakage protection shown below

 The three leads of the primary winding of power transformer are
taken through the core of a current transformer which carries a
single secondary winding.
 The operating coil of a relay is connected to this secondary.
 Under normal conditions (i.e. no fault to earth), the vector sum of
the three phase currents is zero and there is no resultant flux in the
core of current transformer no matter how much the load is out of
balance.

 Consequently, no current flows through the relay and it remains
inoperative.
 However, on the occurrence of an earth-fault, the vector sum of three
phase currents is no longer zero.
 The resultant current sets up flux in the core of the C.T. which induces
e.m.f. in the secondary winding.
 This energises the relay to trip the circuit breaker and disconnect the faulty
transformer from the system.

Combined Leakage and Overload Protection
 Leakage protection is limited to overload protection
 The two overload relays are sufficient to protect against phase-to-phase
faults.
 The trip contacts of overload relays and earth fault relay are connected in
parallel.
 Therefore, with the energizing of either overload relay or earth relay, the
circuit breaker will be tripped.

Circulating-Current Scheme for Transformer Protection
Merz-price protection system can be employed for transformers,
but connection of transformers and CTs should be correct as
circulating current issues
 If a ground or phase-to-phase fault occurs, the currents in the
secondaries of CTs will no longer be the same and the differential
current flowing through the relay circuit will clear the breaker on
both sides of the transformer.

Protection of Alternators

Introduction
 Alternator is the most important components of PS, then it should be
protected
 Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are :
i. Failure of prime-mover
ii. Failure of field
iii. Overcurrent
iv. Overspeed
v. Overvoltage
vi. Unbalanced loading
vii.Stator
103 winding faults
Differential Protection of Alternators
The most common used protection
for stator winding fault based on
circulating current known as
merz-price circulating current
scheme
When an earth-fault or phase-to-
phase fault occurs, this condition
no longer holds good and the
differential current flowing
through the relay circuit operates
the relay to trip the circuit breaker.
Balanced Earth-fault Protection
When an earth-fault occurs at F1or
within the protected zone, these
currents are no longer equal and the
differential current flows through the
operating coil of the relay.
The relay then closes its contacts to
disconnect the alternator from the
system.
But for fault point F2, out of the
protected zone, no current flow to
the 105
relay Key&Light DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
Stator Inter-turn Protection
 Merz-price circulating current protection is employed for LG, LL faults
 But for double winding alternators inter-turn fault protection is applied
 If a short-circuit develops between adjacent turns, say on S1, the currents in the stator
windings S1and S2 will no longer be equal.
 Then the relay closes its contacts to isolate the generator from the system

 Common transformer faults: As compared with generators, in which many abnormal conditions
may arise, power transformers may suffer only from :
i. Open circuits
ii. Overheating
iii. Winding short-circuits e.g. earth-faults, phase-to-phase faults and inter-turn faults.
 The principal relays and systems used for transformer protection are :
i. Buchholz devices providing protection against all kinds of incipient faults i.e. slow-
developing faults such as insulation failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to
leaky joints etc.
ii. Earth-fault relays providing protection against earth-faults only.
iii. Overcurrent relays providing protection mainly against phase-to-phase faults and
overloading.
iv. Differential system (or circulating-current system) providing protection against both earth and
107 faults.
phase Key&Light DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
Circuit Breakers
Introduction
 During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to
switch on or off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors,
generating plants etc.) under both normal and abnormal conditions.
 In earlier days, this function used to be performed by a switch and a fuse
placed in series with the circuit.
 However, such a means of control presents two disadvantages.
i. Firstly, when a fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and
restore supply to the customers.
ii. Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault currents that
result from faults on modern high-voltage and large capacity circuits.
 Due to these disadvantages, the use of switches and fuses is
limited to low-voltage and small capacity circuits
 where frequent operations are not expected e.g., for switching
and protection of distribution transformers, lighting circuits,
branch circuits of distribution lines etc.
 With the advancement of power system, the lines and other
equipment operate at very high voltages and carry large
currents.
 The arrangement of switches along with fuses cannot serve
the desired function of switchgear in such high capacity ckts.
 This necessitates to employ a more dependable means of
control such as is obtained by the use of circuit breakers.
 A CB can make or break a circuit either manually or
automatically under all conditions viz., no-load, full-load
and short-circuit conditions.
 This characteristic of the CB has made it a very useful
equipment for switching and protection of various parts of
the power system.

 A CB is a piece of equipment which can
(i) Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control
under normal conditions
(ii) Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
(iii) Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault
conditions
Thus a CB incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as
automatic control for switching functions.
The latter control employs relays and operates only under fault
conditions.
Operating principle
 A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving
contacts, called electrodes.
 Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain
closed and will not open automatically until and unless
the system becomes faulty.
 Of course, the contacts can be opened manually or by
remote control whenever desired.
 When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip
coils of the CB get energized and the moving contacts are
pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
 When the contacts of a CB are separated under fault conditions, an
arc is struck between them.
 The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases/
stops.
 The production of arc not only delays the current interruption
process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause
damage to the system or to the CB itself.
 Therefore, the main problem in a CB is to extinguish /turn off the
arc within the shortest possible time
 So that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.
Arc Phenomenon
 When a short-circuit
occurs, a heavy current
flows through the contacts
of the CB before they are
opened by the protective
system.
 At the instant when the
contacts begin to separate,
the contact area decreases
rapidly and large fault
current causes increased
current density and hence
rise in
115
temperature.
 The heat produced in the
medium between contacts
(usually the medium is oil or
air) is sufficient to ionize the
air or vaporize and ionize
the oil.
 The ionized air or vapor acts
as conductor and an arc is
struck between the contacts.
 The p.d. between the
contacts is quite small and is
just sufficient to maintain
the arc. 116 Key&Light DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
 The arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit
remains uninterrupted so long as the arc persists.
 During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the
arc resistance.
 The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the contacts.
 The arc resistance depends upon the following factors :
(i)Degree of ionization— the arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number
of ionized particles between the contacts.
(ii)Length of the arc— the arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e.,
separation of contacts.
(iii)Cross-section of arc— the arc resistance increases with the decrease in area of X-
section of the arc.

Principles of Arc Extinction
 Before discussing the methods of arc extinction, it is necessary to examine the factors responsible for
the maintenance of arc between the contacts.
 These are :
(i)Potential difference between the contacts
(ii)Ionized particles between contacts
Taking these in turn,
(i) When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d. between them is sufficient to maintain the arc.
One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to such a distance that p.d. becomes inadequate
to maintain the arc.
However, this method is impracticable in high voltage system where a separation of many meters may be
required.
(i)The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc.
If the arc path is deionized, the arc extinction will be facilitated.
This may be achieved by cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the space
between
118the contacts.
Methods of Arc Extinction
 There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.
1. High resistance method
2. Low resistance or current zero method
 High resistance method
 In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that current
is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc.
 Consequently, the current is interrupted or the arc is extinguished.
 The principal disadvantage of this method is that enormous energy is
dissipated in the arc.
 Therefore, it is employed only in d.c. CBs and low-capacity a.c. CBs.
 The resistance of the arc may be increased by :
⁂Lengthening the arc. The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to its length.
The length of the arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts.
⁂Cooling the arc. Cooling helps in the deionization of the medium between the
contacts. This increases the arc resistance. Efficient cooling may be obtained by a gas
blast directed along the arc.
⁂Reducing X-section of the arc. If the area of X-section of the arc is reduced, the
voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. In other words, the resistance of the
arc path is increased. The cross-section of the arc can be reduced by letting the arc
pass through a narrow opening or by having smaller area of contacts.
⁂Splitting the arc. The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into a
number of smaller arcs in series. Each one of these arcs experiences the effect of
lengthening and cooling. The arc may be split by introducing some conducting
plates between the contacts
Key&Light 120 DMiT 07/16/202
SoECEG
Low resistance or Current zero method.
 This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits only.
 In this method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where the arc
extinguishes naturally and is prevented from re-striking inspite of the
rising voltage across the contacts.
 All modern high power a.c. CBs employ this method for arc extinction.
 In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-cycle.
 At every current zero, the arc extinguishes for a brief moment.
 Now the medium between the contacts contains ions and electrons
so that it has small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by
the rising contact voltage known as re-striking voltage.
 If such a breakdown does occur, the arc will persist for another half cycle.
 If immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength of the medium
between contacts is built up more rapidly than the voltage across the contacts,
the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.
 The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero can be
achieved by :
(a)Causing the ionized particles in the space between contacts to recombine into
neutral molecules.
(b)Sweeping the ionized particles away and replacing them by unionized particles.
 Therefore, the real problem in a.c. arc interruption is to rapidly deionize the
medium between contacts as soon as the current becomes zero so that the rising
contact voltage or re-striking voltage cannot breakdown the space b/n contacts.
 The deionization of the medium can be achieved by:
(i) Lengthening of the gap. The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to the length
of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by opening the contacts rapidly, higher dielectric
strength of the medium can be achieved.
(ii)High pressure. If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc is increased, the density of the
particles constituting the discharge also increases. The increased density of particles causes
and consequently the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts is increasedhigher
rate of deionization .
(iii)Cooling. Natural combination of ionized particles takes place more rapidly if they are
allowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts can be
increased by cooling the arc.
(iv)Blast effect. If the ionized particles between the contacts are swept away and replaced by
unionized particles, the dielectric strength of the medium can be increased considerably.
This may be achieved by a gas blast directed along the discharge or by forcing oil into the
contact
123 space. Key&Light DMiT 07/16/202
SoECEG
Important Terms
 The following are the important terms much used in the CB analysis :
(i) Arc Voltage. It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the CB during the arcing
period.
 As soon as the contacts of the CB separate, an arc is formed.
 The voltage that appears across the contacts during arcing period is called the arc voltage.
 Its value is low except for the period the fault current is at or near zero current point.
 At current zero, the arc voltage rises rapidly to peak value and this peak voltage tends to
maintain the current flow in the form of arc.
(i) Restriking voltage. It is the transient voltage that appears across the contacts at or near
current zero during arcing period.

 At current zero, a high-frequency transient voltage appears across the contacts and is
caused by the rapid distribution of energy between the magnetic and electric fields
associated with the plant and transmission lines of the system.
 This transient voltage is known as restriking voltage (Fig. below).
 The current interruption in the circuit depends upon this voltage.
 If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength of the medium
between the contacts, the arc will persist for another half-cycle.
 On the other hand, if the dielectric strength of the medium builds up more rapidly
than the restriking voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.

(i) Recovery voltage. It is the normal frequency (50 Hz) r.m.s.
voltage that appears across the contacts of the CB after final
arc extinction.
 It is approximately equal to the system voltage.
 When contacts of circuit breaker are opened, current drops to
zero after every half cycle.
 At some current zero, the contacts are separated sufficiently
apart and dielectric strength of the medium between the
contacts attains a high value due to the removal of ionised
particles.
 At such an instant, the medium between the contacts is strong
enough to prevent the breakdown by the restriking voltage.

Consequently, the final arc extinction takes place
and circuit current is interrupted.
Immediately after final current interruption, the
voltage that appears across the contacts has a
transient part (See Fig).
However, these transient oscillations subside
rapidly due to the damping effect of system
resistance and normal circuit voltage appears
across the contacts.
The voltage across the contacts is of normal
frequency and is known as recovery voltage.
Classification of Circuit Breakers
 There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers.
 However, the most general way of classification is on the basis of medium used for arc
extinction
 The medium used for arc extinction is usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) or
vacuum.
 Accordingly, circuit breakers may be classified into :
(i) Oil CBs which employ some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) for arc extinction.
(ii)Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
(iii)Sulphur hexafluroide CBs in which sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc
extinction.
(iv)Vacuum CBs in which vacuum is used for arc extinction.
 Each type of circuit breaker has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Oil Circuit Breakers
 In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (e.g.,
transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching medium.
 The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck
between them.
 The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and
dissociates it into a substantial volume of gaseous
*hydrogen at high pressure.
 The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand
times that of the oil decomposed.
 The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the arc and an
expanding hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the arc region
and 129
adjacent portions
Key&Light of the contacts (See Fig.). DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
 The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two
processes.
 Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity
and cools the arc, thus aiding the deionization of the
medium between the contacts.
 Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and
forces it into the space between contacts, thus
eliminating the arcing
products from the arc path.
 The result is that arc is extinguished and circuit
current †interrupted.
Advantages
 The advantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are :
(i) It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases which have excellent cooling
properties.
(ii)It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between live conductors and earthed
components.
(iii)The surrounding oil presents cooling surface in close proximity to the arc.
Disadvantages
 The disadvantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are :
(i) It is inflammable and there is a risk of a fire.
(ii)It may form an explosive mixture with air
(iii)The arcing products (e.g., carbon) remain in the oil and its quality deteriorates with successive
operations. This necessitates periodic checking and replacement of oil.
Types of Oil Circuit Breakers
 The oil CBs find extensive use in the power system. These can be classified into the following types :
 Bulk oil circuit breakers which use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two purposes.
 Firstly, it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and
 Secondly, it insulates the current conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit
breakers may be classified into :
(a) Plain break oil circuit breakers
(b)Arc control oil circuit breakers.
 In the former type, no special means is available for controlling the arc and the contacts are directly exposed
to the whole of the oil in the tank.
 However, in the latter type, special arc control devices are employed to get the beneficial action of the arc as
efficiently as possible.
 Low oil circuit breakers which use minimum amount of oil.
 In such CBs, oil is used only for arc extinction; the current conducting parts are insulated by air or porcelain
or organic insulating material.
Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers
 A plain-break oil CB involves the simple process of separating the contacts under the
whole of the oil in the tank.
 There is no special system for arc control other than the increase in length caused by the
separation of contacts.
 The arc extinction occurs when a certain critical gap between the contacts is reached.
 The plain-break oil circuit breaker is the earliest type from which all other CBs have
developed.
 It has a very simple construction.
 It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a strong weather-tight earthed tank
containing oil up to a certain level and an air cushion above the oil level.
 The air cushion provides sufficient room to allow for the reception of the arc gases
without
133
the generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the circuit breaker.
 It also absorbs the mechanical shock of the upward oil
movement.
 Fig. shows a *double break plain oil circuit breaker.
 It is called a double break because it provides two breaks
in series.
 Under normal operating conditions, the fixed and moving
contacts remain closed and the breaker carries the normal
circuit current.
 When a fault occurs, the moving contacts are pulled down
by the protective system and an arc is struck which
vaporizes the oil mainly into hydrogen gas.

 The arc extinction is facilitated by the following processes :
(i) The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the arc column and aids the deionization of the medium
between the contacts.
(ii) The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and helps in eliminating the arcing products from the arc path.
(iii)As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts, the dielectric strength of the medium is increased.
 The result of these actions is that at some critical gap length, the arc is extinguished and the circuit current is
interrupted.
Disadvantages
(i) There is no special control over the arc other than the increase in length by separating the moving contacts.
Therefore, for successful interruption, long arc length is necessary.
(ii) These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times.
(iii)These breakers do not permit high speed interruption.
 Due to these disadvantages, plain-break oil circuit breakers are used only for low-voltage applications where high
breaking-capacities are not important.
 It is a usual practice to use such breakers for low capacity installations for voltages not exceeding †11 kV.

Arc Control Oil Circuit Breakers
 In case of plain-break oil circuit breaker discussed above, there is
very little artificial control over the arc.
 Therefore, comparatively long arc length is essential in order that
turbulence in the oil caused by the gas may assist in quenching it.
 However, it is necessary and desirable that final arc extinction
should occur while the contact gap is still short.
 For this purpose, some arc control is incorporated and the breakers
are then called arc control circuit breakers.

 There are two types of such breakers, namely :
(i)Self-blast oil circuit breakers— in which arc control
is provided by internal means i.e. the arc itself is
employed for its own extinction efficiently.
(ii)Forced-blast oil circuit breakers— in which arc
control is provided by mechanical means external to
the circuit breaker.
(i) Self-blast oil circuit breakers.
In this type of CB, the gases produced during arcing are confined to a small volume
by the use of an insulating rigid pressure chamber or pot surrounding the contacts.
Since the space available for the arc gases is restricted by the chamber, a very high
pressure is developed to force the oil and gas through or around the arc to extinguish
it.
The magnitude of pressure developed depends upon the value of fault current to be
interrupted.
 As the pressure is generated by the arc itself, therefore, such breakers are sometimes
called self-generated pressure oil circuit breakers.
The pressure chamber is relatively cheap to make and gives reduced final arc
extinction gap length and arcing time as against the plain-break oil circuit breaker.
Several designs of pressure chambers (sometimes called explosion pots) have been
developed and a few of them are described below :
(a)Plain explosion pot.
 It is a rigid cylinder of insulating material and encloses the fixed and
moving contacts (See Fig. 19.4).
 The moving contact is a cylindrical rod passing through a restricted
opening (called throat) at the bottom.
 When a fault occurs, the contacts get separated and an arc is struck
between them.
 The heat of the arc decomposes oil into a gas at very high pressure in the
pot.
 This high pressure forces the oil and gas through and round the arc to
extinguish it.
 If the final arc extinction does not take place while the moving contact is
still within the pot, it occurs immediately after the moving contact leaves
the pot.
 It is because emergence of the moving contact from the pot is followed by
a violent rush of gas and oil through the throat producing rapid extinction.
 The principal limitation of this type of pot is that it cannot be used for very
low or for very high fault currents.
 With low fault currents, the pressure developed is small, thereby
increasing the arcing time.
 On the other hand, with high fault currents, the gas is produced so rapidly
that explosion pot is liable to burst due to high pressure.
 For this reason, plain explosion pot operates well on moderate short-circuit
currents only where the rate of gas evolution is moderate.

(b) Cross jet explosion pot. This type of pot is just a modification of
plain explosion pot and is illustrated in Fig. below.
 It is made of insulating material and has channels on one side
which act as arc splitters.
 The arc splitters help in increasing the arc length, thus facilitating
arc extinction.
 When a fault occurs, the moving contact of the circuit breaker
begins to separate.
 As the moving contact is withdrawn, the arc is initially struck in
the top of the pot.
 The gas generated by the arc exerts pressure on the oil in the back
passage.
 When the moving contact uncovers the arc splitter ducts, fresh oil
is forced *across the arc path.
 The arc is, therefore, driven sideways into the “arc splitters” which
increase the arc length, causing arc extinction.
 The cross-jet explosion pot is quite efficient for
interrupting heavy fault currents.
 However, for low fault currents, the gas pressure is †small
and onsequently the pot does not give a satisfactory
operation.
(c) Self-compensated explosion pot.
 This type of pot is essentially a combination of plain explosion pot and cross jet
explosion pot. Therefore, it can interrupt low as well as heavy short circuit currents
with reasonable accuracy.
Fig. 19.6 shows the schematic diagram of self-compensated explosion pot.
 It consists of two chambers, the upper chamber is the cross-jet explosion pot with two
arc splitter ducts while the lower one is the plain explosion pot.
When the short-circuit current is heavy, the rate of generation of gas is very high and
the device behaves as a cross-jet explosion pot.
 The arc extinction takes place when the moving contact uncovers the first or second
arc splitter duct.
 However, on low short-circuit currents, the rate of gas generation is small and the tip
of the moving contact has the time to reach the lower chamber.
 During this time, the gas builds up sufficient pressure as there is very little leakage
through arc splitter ducts due to the obstruction offered by the arc path and right
angle bends.
 When the moving contact comes out of the throat, the arc is extinguished by plain pot
action.
 It may be noted that as the severity of the short-circuit current increases, the device
operates less and less as a plain explosion pot and more and more as a cross-jet
explosion pot.
 Thus the tendency is to make the control self-compensating over the full range of
fault143
currents to be interrupted.
(ii) Forced-blast oil circuit breakers.
 In the self-blast oil circuit breakers discussed above, the arc itself generates the necessary pressure to force
the oil across the arc path.
 The major limitation of such breakers is that arcing times tend to be long and inconsistent when operating
against currents
considerably less than the rated currents.
 It is because the gas generated is much reduced at low values of fault currents.
 This difficulty is overcome in forced-blast oil circuit breakers in which the necessary pressure is generated
by external mechanical means independent of the fault currents to be broken.
 In a forced -blast oil circuit breaker, oil pressure is created by the piston-cylinder arrangement.
 The movement of the piston is mechanically coupled to the moving contact.
 When a fault occurs, the contacts get separated by the protective system and an arc is struck between the
contacts. The piston forces a jet of oil towards the contact gap to extinguish the arc.
 It may be noted that necessary oil pressure produced does not in any way depend upon the fault current to be
broken.
Advantages
(a) Since oil pressure developed is independent of the fault current to be interrupted, the performance at low
currents is more consistent than with self-blast oil circuit breakers.
(b)The quantity of oil required is reduced considerably.
Circuit Breaker Ratings
 A circuit breaker may be called upon to operate under all conditions.
 However, major duties are imposed on the circuit breaker when there is a
fault on the system in which it is connected.
 Under fault conditions, a CB is required to perform the following three
duties :
i. It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the fault
current.
ii. It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.
iii. It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time while another
circuit breaker (in series) is clearing the fault.
 Corresponding to the above mentioned duties, the circuit breakers have
three ratings viz.
(i)Breaking capacity
(ii)Making capacity and
(iii)Short-time capacity.
Breaking capacity. It is current (r.m.s.) that a CB is capable of breaking at
given recovery voltage and under specified conditions (e.g., power factor,
rate of rise of restriking voltage)
 The breaking capacity is always stated at the r.m.s. value of fault current
at the instant of contact separation.
 When a fault occurs, there is considerable asymmetry in the fault current
due to the presence of a d.c. component.
Key&Light DMiT SoECEG 146 07/16/202
 The d.c. component dies away rapidly, a typical
decrement factor being 0·8 per cycle.
 Referring to Fig., the contacts are separated at
DD´.
 At this instant, the fault current has

 It is a common practice to express the breaking capacity in MVA
by taking into account the rated breaking current and rated service
voltage.
 Thus, if I is the rated breaking current in amperes and V is the
rated service line voltage in volts, then for a 3-phase circuit,

(ii) Making capacity.
 There is always a possibility of closing or making the circuit under short circuit
conditions.
 The capacity of a breaker to “make” current depends upon its ability to withstand
and close successfully against the effects of electromagnetic forces.
 These forces are proportional to the square of maximum instantaneous current on
closing.
 Therefore, making capacity is stated in terms of a peak value of current instead of
r.m.s. value.
 The peak value of current (including d.c. component) during the first cycle of current
wave after the closure of CB is known as making capacity.
 It may be noted that the definition is concerned with the first cycle of current wave on
closing the circuit breaker.
 This is because the maximum value of fault current possibly occurs in the
first cycle only when maximum asymmetry occurs in any phase of the
breaker.
 In other words, the making current is equal to the maximum value of
asymmetrical current.
 To find this value, we must multiply symmetrical breaking current by 2 to
convert this from r.m.s. to peak, and then by 1·8 to include the “doubling
effect” of maximum asymmetry.
 The total multiplication factor becomes

(iii) Short-time rating.
 It is the period for which the CB is able to carry fault current while remaining
closed.
 Sometimes a fault on the system is of very temporary nature and persists for
1 or 2 seconds after which the fault is automatically cleared.
 In the interest of continuity of supply, the breaker should not trip in such
situations.
 This means that CBs should be able to carry high current safely for some
specified period while remaining closed i.e., they should have proven short-
time rating.
 However, if the fault persists for a duration longer than the specified time
limit,
151
the CB will trip, disconnecting the faulty section.
 The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability to withstand
(a)the electromagnetic force effects and
(b)the temperature rise.
 The oil circuit breakers have a specified limit of 3 seconds when the ratio of
symmetrical breaking current to the rated normal current does not exceed 40.
 However, if this ratio is more than 40, then the specified limit is 1 second.
 Normal current rating. It is the r.m.s. value of current which the circuit breaker is
capable of carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions.
 The only limitation in this case is the temperature rise of current-carrying parts.

Automatic generation
and
Voltage control
Introduction
Automatic generation control (AGC) is a system for adjusting the power
output of multiple generators at different power plants, in response to
changes in the load.
Since a power grid requires that generation and load closely balance
moment by moment, frequent adjustments to the output of generators are
necessary.
The balance can be judged by measuring the system frequency;
If it is increasing, more power is being generated than used, which causes all
the machines in the system to accelerate.
If the system frequency is decreasing, more load is on the system than the
instantaneous generation can provide, which causes all generators to slow
down. 156 Key&Light DMiT SoECEG 07/16/202
Need Of Automatic Generation Control
 As our development has increased, there has been a higher demand of
electrical power loads both on industrial and domestic scale.
 As the number increases, it is also imperative to manage load properly
since a failure to do so results in frequency fluctuation and voltage drops.
 An effective regulatory strategy is available in the form of
 Automatic Voltage Regulator Systems (AVR) and
 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)
 The main function of ALFC system is to assess and rectify the power
and frequency while that of AVR system is to regulate voltage and
reactive power.
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
 With primary control action, a change in system load will result in a steady
state frequency deviation depending on the speed droop characteristics and
frequency sensitivity of loads.
 Hence restoration of system frequency requires supplementary control
action which adjusts the load reference set point of the governors of
selected generating units by a speed changer motor.
 Automatic generation control (AGC) is the name given to a control system
having three major objectives:
1. To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value.
2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power b/n control areas.
3. To
159 maintain each unit's generation at the most
Key&Light DMiT
economic value. 07/16/202
SoECEG
Speed
Reasons For Limiting Frequency Deviations
There are few reasons as to why there should be strict limitations on
frequency deviations and keeping the system frequency (f) constant.
They are:
The 3Φ a.c. motors running speed are directly proportional to the f.
So, the variation of system f will directly affect the motor performance.
The blades of the steam turbine & the water turbines are designed to operate
at a particular speed & the f variation will cause change in the speed.
This will lead to excessive vibration and cause damage to the turbine
blades.
The f error may produce destruction in the digital storage and retrieval
process.
Load Frequency Control
The basics of Load Frequency Control
For successful operation of the system:
i. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand
ii. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and
rigid limits.
iii.The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable
limits and
iv.In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows
must be maintained at the specified values.
Cont.…
 When real power balance b/n generation and demand is achieved the f, specification
is automatically satisfied.
 Similarly, with a balance b/n reactive power generation and demand, voltage profile
is also maintained within the prescribed limits.
 Under steady state conditions, the total real power generation in the system equals the
total MW demand plus real power losses.
 Any difference is immediately indicated by a change in speed or frequency.
 Generators are fitted with speed governors which will have varying characteristics:
Different sensitivities,
Dead bands response times and droops.
 They adjust the input to match the demand within their limits.
 Any change in local demand within permissible limits is absorbed by generators in the
system
164 in a random fashion.
Cont.…
An independent aim of the AGC is to reschedule the generation
changes to preselected machines in the system after the governors
have accommodated the load change in a random manner.
Thus, additional or supplementary regulation devices are

needed along with governors for proper regulation.
The control of generation in this manner is termed load-frequency

control.
Speed Governing Mechanism
 The speed governing mechanism includes the following parts.
 Speed Governor: It is an error sensing device in load frequency control. It includes
all the elements that are directly responsive to speed and influence other elements of
the system to initiate action.
 Governor Controlled Valves: They control the input to the turbine and are actuated
by the speed control mechanism.
 Speed Control Mechanism: It includes all equipment such as levers and linkages,
servomotors, amplifying devices and relays that are placed between the speed
governor and the governor controlled valves.
 Speed Changer: It enables the speed governor system to adjust the speed of the turbo
generator unit while in operation.
Economic Dispatch Control
 In power generation our main aim is to generate the required
amount of power with minimum cost.
 Economic load dispatch means that the generator’s P & Q power
are allowed to vary within certain limits so as to meet a particular
load demand with minimum fuel cost
 It describes how the real power output of each controlled
generating unit in an area is selected to meet a given load and to
minimize the total operating costs in the area.
 This allocation of loads are based on some constraints.
Cont..
 This is the economic dispatch problem
 For the area of an interconnected power system consisting of N units operating on
economic dispatch, the total variable cost CT of operating these units is
……….(1)
Where
 Let
= ……………………………………….. (2)
 Due to relatively slow changes in load demand, may be considered constant for periods
of 2 to 10 minutes.
 The economic dispatch problem can be stated as follows:
 Find the values of unit outputs that minimize given by (1), subject to the equality
constraint given by (2).
 A criterion for the solution to this problem is: All units on economic dispatch should
Cont.…
operate at equal incremental operating cost.

 i == …
 An intuitive explanation of this criterion is the following.
 Suppose one unit is operating at a higher incremental operating cost than the other
units.
 If the output power of that unit is reduced and transferred to units with lower
incremental operating costs, then the total operating cost decreases.
 That is, reducing the output of the unit with the higher incremental cost results in a
greater cost decrease than the cost increase of adding that same output reduction to
units with lower incremental costs.
 Therefore, all units must operate at the same incremental operating cost (the
economic dispatch criterion).
The mathematical analysis becomes as:
 The minimum value of occurs when the total differential is zero.
Cont.…
i.e.,
 using eq (1), eq (x) becomes
=
 Also, assuming is constant, the differential of eq(2) is ,  Therefore, all units have
the same incremental
………………………..(3) operating cost, denoted
here by , in order to
 Multiplying eq (3) by λ and subtract from eq(i) minimize the total
operating cost CT
()
Equation (4) is satisfied when each term in parentheses equals zero. That is
=

Example economic dispatch solution neglecting generator limits and line losses
1. An area of an interconnected power system has two fossil-fuel units

operating on economic dispatch. The variable operating costs of these
units are given by
where P1 and P2 are in megawatts.

Determine the power output of each unit, the incremental operating cost, and
the total operating cost that minimizes as the total load demand varies from
500 to 1500 MW. Generating unit inequality constraints and transmission
losses are neglected.
Solution: the incremental operating costs of the units are
=
 The minimum total operating cost occurs when
=
=,=
=
 Solving for
=

 Also, the incremental operating cost when is minimized is
==
 and the minimum total operating cost is

= + ()
 The economic dispatch solution is shown below for values of PT from 500 to 1500 MW.

Load Frequency Control (Single Area Case)
 Let us consider the problem of controlling the power output of the
generators of a closely joined electric area to maintain, the scheduled
frequency.
 All the generators in such an area constitute a coherent group so that all
the generators speed up and slow downs together maintaining their
relative power angles.
 Such an area is defined as a control area.
 Their boundaries of a control area will generally coincide with that of an
individual Electricity Board Company.
 To understand the load frequency control problem, let us consider a single
turbo-generator system supplying an isolated load
Cont.…
 Load f control with integral controller achieves zero steady state
f error and a fast dynamic response, but it exercises no control
over the relative loadings of various generating stations (i.e.,
economic dispatch) of the control area.
 For example, if a sudden small increase in load (say, 1%) occurs
in the control area ,the load- f control changes the speed
changer
 Setting of the governors of all generating units of the area so
that, together, these units match the load & the f returns to the
scheduled
175
value (this action takes place in a few seconds).
Cont.….
 However, in the process of this change the Loadings of
various generating unites change in a manner independent
of economic loading consideration.
 In fact, some units in the process may even get over
loaded.
 Some control over loading of individual units can be
exercised by adjusting the gain factors(Ki) included in the
signal representing integral of the area control error as fed
to individual units.
 However,
176
this is not satisfactory.
Cont.….

Turbine Speed Governing System
• Figure below shows schematically the speed governing system of a steam
turbine.

The system consists of the following component Cont.….
(i) Fly ball speed governor:

This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed (frequency).
 As the speed increases the fly balls move outwards & the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards.
The reverse happens when the speed decreases.
(ii) Hydraulic amplifier:
 It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement.
Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into high power
level piston valve movement.
This is necessary in order to open or close the steam valve against high
pressure steam.
iii. Linkage mechanism: Cont.….
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B & CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D.
 This link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion
to change in speed.
It also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.
iv. Speed change movement:
it provides steady state power output setting for the turbine.
Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power
output).
The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer.
Two-area Load Frequency Control
 An extended power system can be divided into a number of load

frequency control areas interconnected by means of tie lines.
 Without loss of generality we shall consider a two-area case connected by

a single tie line as illustrated in Fig.

Cont.….
 The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area
and to simultaneously regulate the tie line power as per inter-area
power contracts.
 As in the case of f, proportional plus integral controller will be
installed so as to give zero steady state error in tie line power flow
as compared to the contracted power.
 It is conveniently assumed that each control area can be
represented by an equivalent turbine, generator and governor
system.
 Symbols used with suffix 1 refer to area 1 and those with suffix 2
refer
182
to area 2.
SoECEG
Cont.….

Automatic Voltage Control (AVC)
 The above figure gives the schematic diagram of an AVR of a generator.
 It basically consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator field to control the
output voltage.
 The exciter field is automatically controlled through error E = Vref - VT suitably
amplified through voltage and power amplifiers.
 It is a type-0 system which requires a constant error E for a specified voltage at
generator terminals.
 The block diagram of the system is given in Fig. below.
 The function of important components and their transfer functions is given below:
 Potential transformer: It gives a sample of terminal voltage VT
 Differencing device; It gives he actuating error e= Vrf - VT
Cont.…
 The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting the alternator

excitation.
 Error wave form is suppressed carrier modulated, the carrier frequency
being
185 the system frequency of 50 Hz.
 The load causes a voltage drop w/c is a complex function of
direct and quadrature axis currents.
 The effects only schematically represented by block GL.

Power system
reliability analysis
Ch_4 :Power system reliability analysis
Introduction
Reliability is the analysis of failures, their causes and
consequences.
 It is the most important characteristic of product quality as
things have to be working satisfactorily before considering
other quality attributes.
 Reliability is the probability that the system will perform its
intended function under specified working condition for a
specified
190
period of time
 Quantitatively, reliability is expressed as a mathematical function
Intro…
of time:
 R(t) = Probability that the system still works correctly at time t.
 Reliability is a real number between 0 and 1; that is, at any time 0
≤ R(t) ≤ 1.
 We assume that R(t) is a monotonically decreasing function; that
is, failures are permanent.

Power System Reliability
 The basic function of an electric power system is to supply
consumers with electricity.
 Modern society demands that electrical energy should be as
economical as possible with reasonable degree of continuity and
quality.
 The continuity of energy supply can be increased by improved
system structure, increased investment during the planning phase,
operating phase or both.
 It is evident therefore that the reliability and economic constraints
are related.
Cont’d
 The Fig. shows that the system cost will generally increase with higher
investment cost in equipment & facilities which provide higher reliability.
 On the other hand, the customer interruption costs due to higher reliability
will decrease.
 The total cost to society is the sum of these two costs.
 There is a minimum point in the resulting total cost curve which indicates
the optimal target level of reliability.

The difference between Power Quality & Power Reliability
 Power quality and power reliability are related but separate aspects
of the electric power supply.
 While some experts and publications treat both PQ and PR as subsets
of “power quality,” we treat each as a separate major category, or
“condition,” of the power supply.
 As noted, the lack of, or diminishment of both power quality and
reliability has measurable economic impacts for the power user (the
customer).
 The consequences of poor PQ and PR can range in magnitude and
probable cost from inconvenience as a result of equipment failure to
damage and lost productivity. 194 DMiT Key&Light
SoECEG 07/16/202
Cont’d
 Power quality has to do mainly with the supply of voltage to meet the
needs of the customer and is measured in terms of voltage stability,
frequency stability and the "purity" of the waveform.
 High power quality implies the near absence of measurable voltage
sags and very short interruptions, voltage surges, voltage spikes,
waveform harmonics, and so on.
 PQ related problems occur whenever conventional AC electric power
deviates momentarily or continuously from established standards for
voltage, frequency, and waveform.
 (Although a complete interruption of supply could be included in this
category,
195 we consider it part of the PR category).
Cont’
d
 Transient voltage spikes, for example can and do destroy data and
solid-state components.
 Voltage sags can stress solid-state electronic components.
 Diminished power quality also impacts even the universal, and
otherwise robust, induction motor in service in millions of
consumer appliances and commercial and industrial machines.
 For example, sustained low voltage (a power quality event) can
damage the motor that drives the home refrigerator compressor
because of the increased current that must be delivered to meet its
power demand.
 Power reliability means availability of power. Cont’d
 Simply stated, the power is there or it is not.

 In practice, reliability is measured in terms of the frequency and duration
of both complete interruptions of supply or partial interruptions of supply
(that is, ability to meet only a portion of the power demanded by the
customer).
 PR problems occur as a result of unplanned interruptions in the supply of
power.
 Interruptions can vary in time, in the industrialized nations, from a fraction
of an electrical cycle (a few milliseconds) to many hours in duration.
 Momentary and longer power interruptions can cause unprotected solid-
state197systems to “crash,” unless sustaining power equipment intervenes.
Distribution System Reliability
 The majority of customer reliability problems stem from distribution systems.
 For a typical residential customer with 90 min of interrupted power per year, between
70 and 80 minutes will be attributable to problems occurring on the distribution
system that it is connected to.
 In distribution systems, reliability primarily relates to equipment outages and
customer interruptions:
 Outage-when a piece of equipment is de-energized.
 Momentary interruption - when a customer is de-energized for less than a few
minutes.
 Sustained interruption -when a customer is de-energized for more than a few
minutes.
Distribution Reliability Indices
 Utilities typically keep track of
customer reliability by using
reliability indices.
 These are average customer
reliability values for a specific area.
 This area can be the utility’s entire
service area, a particular geographic
region, a substation service area, a
feeder service area, and so on.
 The most commonly used reliability
indices give each customer equal
weight.
Cont’d
 In order to quantify the effects of long interruption, interruption

indices are defined as Interruption Frequency, Supply
Unavailability and Interruption Duration.
 Interruption frequency represents the number of interruptions on
average per year per customer.
 Supply unavailability describes the number of minutes without
supply on average per year per customer, and
 Interruption duration is the average duration of customer
interruptions.
 The most common of these customer reliability indices are: Cont’d
 System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI): It is the average number of

interruptions of supply in the year for the customers who experience interruption of supply.
 Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI):It is the average total duration of
interruptions of supply per annum that a customer experiences.
 Customer Average Interruption Duration Index(CAIDI):It is the average duration of an
interruption of supply in the year for customers who experience interruption of supply.
 Average System Availability Index (ASAI): This is the ratio of the total number of
customer hours that service was available during a year to the total customer hours
demanded.
 The complimentary value to this index i.e the Average Service Unavailable index may also
be used. This is the ratio of total number of customer hours that service was unavailable
during a year to the total customer hours demanded.
Cont’d
• System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)
 Where λi is the failure rate and Ni is number of customers at load point i.

• Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI), hours per interruption
Where Ui is the annual outage time .

Cont’d
• System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) –Hrs per year
• Average Service Availability (Unavailability) Index

Impact of Station Arrangement on Reliability
 The bus and breaker configuration has a direct impact on the
reliability of the system. This section mainly presents the general
operation of breaker arrangement .
Single bus arrangement:
 Fig. shows the single-line diagram of a simplified single bus
arrangement. It is the simplest arrangement with the worst
reliability indexes. In the arrangement shown, the maintenance of
breakers has to be undertaken with the outgoing line disconnected,
and thus the load experiences a long service interruption

Cont’d

Cont’d
Main-and-transfer bus arrangement:

 In the main-and-transfer bus arrangement, two buses, a
main and a transfer, are installed separately and
independently.
 During the normal operation, all diameters are connected to
the main bus. In case of maintenance or fault on the breaker,
the load related to the specific breaker will be transferred to
the transfer bus, and the original breaker is isolated from the
diameter.
Cont’d

Cont’d
Ring bus arrangement:
 A ring bus arrangement consists of breakers and disconnectors
forming in a ring shape to improve the reliability.
 Each load is double fed. For a bus and or a load line fault, only the
faulted part is removed from the service by the fast reaction of
circuit breakers. The rest of the system remains operating without
interruption.
 In case of a breaker failure, two adjacent breakers are tripped to
isolate the fault and to further prevent the loss of the entire
substation.
Cont’d

Reliability Analysis of Fault Tree
 The fault tree itself is a graphic model of the various parallel and
sequential combinations of faults that will result in the occurrence of
the predefined undesired event.
 A fault tree thus depicts the logical interrelationships of basic events
that lead to the undesired event-which is the top event of the fault
tree.
 The construction of the Fault Tree always starts from the TOP event.
 Those fault events that are the immediate, necessary, and sufficient
causes should be carefully identified and connected to the TOP
event through a logic gate.
Cont’d
 A fault tree is tailored to a particular failure of interest. The failure
of interest is called the Top Event.
 The two most used gates in a fault tree are the AND and OR gates.
 The AND gate is used to indicate that the output event occurs only
if all the input faults occur at the same time. There may be any
number of in put faults to an AND gate.
 For n input events during an AND gate, in terms of Probability,
Q = A1× A2×…..× An

Cont’d
 The OR-gate indicates that the output event occurs only if

one or more of the input events occur.
 There may be any number of input events to an OR-gate.
Q = A1+ A2 +…..+ An

Cont’d
Fault Tree Construction
 Figure 1. shows a protective system

consisting of a circuit breaker, a
CT, a relay, a battery, and
associated control wiring.
 One might wonder what the chance

is that the protective system will
not clear a fault.
 The fault tree in the figure helps us

analyze
213 this chance.
Cont’d
 The Top Event is a box containing a description of the failure

event of interest. The top event here is “Protection Fails to Clear
Fault in the Prescribed Time.”
 The fault tree breaks down the Top Event into lower-level events.
Logic gates show the relationship between lower-level events and
the Top Event.
 The OR gate in Figure 1 expresses the idea that any of several
failures can cause the protection system to fail.

 If either the dc system, the current Cont’d
transformer, the protective relay, the
circuit breaker, or the control wiring
fail, then the Top Event “Protection
Fails to Clear Fault in the Prescribed
Time” occurs.
 Let us improve the system by adding a
redundant relay.
 The fault tree of Figure 2 contains an
AND gate.
 This AND gate expresses the idea that
both protective relays must fail for the
event215“Relays Fail to Trip” to occur
Cont’d
 The Top Event is a box containing a description of the failure

event of interest. The top event here is “Protection Fails to Clear
Fault in the Prescribed Time.”
 The fault tree breaks down the Top Event into lower-level events.
Logic gates show the relationship between lower-level events and
the Top Event.
 The OR gate in Figure 1 expresses the idea that any of several
failures can cause the protection system to fail.

Cont’d
 If either the dc system, the current transformer, the protective
relay, the circuit breaker, or the control wiring fail, then the Top
Event “Protection Fails to Clear Fault in the Prescribed Time”
occurs.
 Let us improve the system by adding a redundant relay. The fault
tree of Figure 2 contains an AND gate.
 This AND gate expresses the idea that both protective relays must
fail for the event “Relays Fail to Trip” to occur

Reliability Indices
 Reliability indices are statistical aggregations of reliability data for a
well defined set of loads, components, or customers.
 Most reliability indices are average values of a particular reliability
characteristic for an entire system, operating region, substation service
territory, or feeder.

 SAIFI is a measure of how many sustained interruptions an average
customer will experience over the course of a year.
 For a fixed number of customers, the only way to improve SAIFI is to
reduce the number of sustained interruptions experienced by customers.
 SAIDI is a measure of how many interruption hours an average customer
will experience over the course of a year.
 For a fixed number of customers, SAIDI can be improved by reducing the
number of interruptions or by reducing
the duration of these interruptions.
 Since both of these reflect reliability improvements, a reduction in SAIDI
indicates an improvement in reliability.
 CAIDI is a measure of how long an average interruption lasts, and is used as a
measure of utility response time to system contingencies.
 CAIDI can be improved by reducing the length of interruptions, but can also be
reduced by increasing the number of short interruptions.
 Consequently, a reduction in CAIDI does not necessarily reflect an improvement in
reliability.
 ASAI is the customer-weighted availability of the system and provides the same
information as SAIDI.
 Higher ASAI values reflect higher levels of system reliability, with most US utilities
having ASAI greater than 0.999.
 Some less commonly used reliability indices are not based on the total number of
customers served.
 The Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index (CAIFI) and the Customer
Total221
Average Interruption
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Debre Markos University

Debre Markos Institute of Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Power System Protection and Control (ECEg4232)

Chapter One: 1. Power system protection

 The supply is done through some form of Transmission

The first way is to implement a system adopting components,

Shunt Faults (Short Circuits)

This process of interruption by intentional re-energization known

Phase Faults and Ground Faults

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How the protective system should respond to the abnormal operating

The protection of an isolated power system is simpler because

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 Control actions needed

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Example: Consider the remote backup protection is provided by a

 In a power system consisting of generators, transformers, transmission

 The detection of faults and disconnection of a faulty

(i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer

(ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the

(iii)Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either A.C or

 It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit

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 A relay in which no intentional time delay is provided.

 There is a definite time elapsed between the instant of pickup and

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∴ Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. ×Current setting

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 Figure. below shows the curve between time of

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 Operates when power in the circuit flows in a

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 The directional power relay is not suitable under short circuit

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relays on all such oil immersed transformers

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