Lecture on Logic and Critical

Thinking
By: Hayelom Leul
2022
Introduction
What is Logic and Critical Thinking?
Why Study Logic and Critical Thinking?
Logic and Critical Thinking
Logic and Critical Thinking is an inquiry that takes
arguments as its basic objects of investigation.
Logic is the science of how to evaluate arguments and
reasoning. It is not a matter of opinion; it is a science of how
arguments must be formed in order to be correct.
It tries to tell us what is good reasoning and what is bad
reasoning.
According to Hurley, doing logic is, in many ways, like going
to the gym for your brain.
Unlike other animal kingdoms, humans have the ability to
reason in a particular way.
Learning the various techniques of logic improves and
perfects that very reasoning ability that is so essential to our
being human.
Critical thinking is logical study of decision.
It is a process of evaluation which uses logic to separate
truth from false hood, reasonable from unreasonable beliefs.
It is the analysis of facts to form judgments.
Human reasoning is not always based on logic. Because
human reasoning can be influenced by emotional bias such
as prejudice, stereotype by race or nationality.
 In this sense, critical thinking includes identification of
prejudices, bias, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, miss
information etc.
Objective
The aim of logic and Critical Thinking is:
 To develop a system of methods and principles that we
may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others
and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.
To develop reasoning and general analytical skills in
different field of studies such as law, politics, journalism,
education, medicine, business, science, mathematics,
computer science, and most other areas.
Because If someone doesn’t know any logic, he or she’ll have
only a vague grasp of such issues; and he or she’ll lack the
tools needed to understand and evaluate argument.
To minimize errors, recognizing problems and finding out
solutions for them, and taking correct decisions quickly in
crucial situations.
Learning Outcomes/ Benefits
Among the benefits to be expected from the study of logic is
an increase in confidence that we are making sense when we
criticize the arguments of others and when we advance
arguments of our own.
Course Chapters
Chapter One: Introducing Philosophy
Chapter Two: Basic Concepts of Logic
Chapter Three: Logic and Language
Chapter Four: Basic Concepts of Critical Thinking
Chapter Five: Logical Reasoning and Fallacies
Chapter Six: Categorical Propositions
Chapter One: Introducing Philosophy
Chapter content
 Meaning and Definition of philosophy
 Core Branches of Philosophy
 Importance of Learning Philosophy
Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
What is Philosophy?
Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from two Greek
words: “philo” and “Sophia”, which mean “love” and “wisdom”,
respectively. Thus, the literal definition of philosophy is “love of
wisdom”.
The ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras was the first to use the
word “philosopher” to call a person who clearly shows a marked
curiosity in the things he experiences.
As discipline, philosophy is a rational and critical enterprise
that tries to formulate and answer fundamental questions
through an intensive application of reason- an application that
draws on analysis, comparison, and evaluation-, and deals with
the most basic issues faced by human beings.
Fundamental or basic questions that faced by human beings
may be: Does God exists?, What is reality?, What is the ultimate
source of being?, What is knowledge?, What does it mean to
know?, How do we come to know?, What is value?, and the like.
Perspectives of Defining Philosophy
 The most common perspectives of defining philosophy are Five. These are:
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which
are often held uncritically.
 This refers to an informal personal attitude- someone may say my
philosophy is…
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply
held conceptions and beliefs.
 This refers to the formal sense of having and doing philosophy-which
involves skills of argumentation that enables the mind to make a critical
evaluation of facts.
 Philosophers, theologians, scientists, and other thinkers disagree in
critical evaluations of facts because of three main reasons.
a. they view things from different points of view and with different
assumptions based on their personal experience
b. a changing universe
c. lack of complete evidence
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as
a whole
 Philosophy integrates various sciences and human
experience into some kind of consistent worldview in order
to provide knowledge and insight of whole for our lives
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the
clarification of the meaning of words and concepts
 This perspective claimed that the task of philosophy is
clarifying meaning of terms in order to avoid non scientific
assertions and vague grasp of things.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest
people and for which philosophers always have sought answers.
 This see Philosophy as a continuous inquiry into the deepest
problems of philosophical questions.
 philosophical question ― What is truth?, What is the distinction
between right and wrong?, What is life and why am I here?, Why is
there anything at all? What is the place of life in this great universe?,
etc.
 The attempt to seek answers or solutions to them has given rise to
theories and systems of thought, such as idealism, realism,
pragmatism, analytic philosophy, existentialism, phenomenology,
and process philosophy.

In short we can define philosophy as the attempt to think critically

towards different issues. But about what we critically think divides
philosophy into different branches since there are a lot of questions
addressed by philosophy.
Discuss the following questions
How should people reason to reason correctly? And how do
people reason in everyday life?
Reasoning does not occur, only, in the brain of a person but
in everyday exchanges occurring between individuals and the
history of their community. Why?
Branches of Philosophy
Not all lists of the branches of philosophy agree, but the
main branches of Philosophy are:
 Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Axiology.
1. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that concerns about
existence or reality.
The question of metaphysics is what is reality? What is real? This
involves, of course, many related questions, such as, is reality some
kind of “thing”? Is it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it
related to the many things around us? Can ultimate reality be
grasped by the five senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent?
And so on.
Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets or aspects.
a. Cosmological Aspect: Cosmology consists in the study of
theories about the origin, nature, and development of the universe as
an orderly system. Questions such as these populate the realm of
cosmology: “How did the universe originate and develop? Did it come
about by accident or design? Does its existence have any purpose?”
b. Theological Aspect: Theology is that part of religious theory that
deals with conceptions of God. “Is there a God? If so, is there one or
more than one? What are the attributes of God? If God is both all
good and all powerful, why does evil exist? If God exists, what is His
relationship to human beings and the ‘real’ world of everyday life?” 
c. Anthropological Aspect: Anthropology deals with the study of
human beings and asks questions like the following:
 What is the relation between mind and body?
 Is mind more fundamental than body, with body depending on
mind, or vice versa?
 What is humanity‘s moral status? Are people born good, evil, or
morally neutral?
 To what extent are individuals free?
 Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and actions determined
by their environment, inheritance, or a divine being?
 Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it?
4. Ontological Aspect: Ontology is the study of the nature of
existence, or what it means for anything to exist.
• Several questions are central to ontology: “Is basic reality
found in matter or physical energy (the world we can sense),
or is it found in spirit or spiritual energy? Is it composed of
one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter and
spirit), or many? Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it
merely orderable by the human mind? Is it fixed and stable,
or is change its central feature? Is this reality friendly,
unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?”
Epistemology/ Theory of knowledge
The word epistemology has been derived from the Greek words
episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words, we can say that Epistemology
is the study of the nature, source, and validity of knowledge.
It seeks to answer of the basic questions as;
 “What is knowledge and how do we know?”
 What does it mean to know?
 What is the source of knowledge?(Experience? Reason? Or both?)
 Can reason really help us to know phenomenal things without
being informed by sense experiences?
 Can our sense experience really help us to know things beyond our
perception without the assistance of our reasoning ability?
 What is the relationship and difference between faith and reason?
Metaphysics and epistemology answers the questions of what is
real? And how can I know it? Respectively.
Axiology
Axiology is the third branch of philosophy that deals with values.
The term Axiology stems from two Greek words- “Axios”, meaning
“value, worth”, and “logos”, meaning “reason/ theory/ symbol /
science/study of”. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical study of
value, which originally meant the worth of something. Axiology
asks the philosophical questions of values that deal with notions
of what a person or a society regards as good or preferable, such as:
What is a value?
Where do values come from?
How do we justify our values?
How do we know what is valuable?
What is the relationship between values and knowledge?
What kinds of values exist?
Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another?
Who benefits from values? Etc.
Axiology or values can be studied under fields of ethics,
Aesthetics, and social and political philosophy
Ethics investigates questions involving right conduct, good
character, and life fulfillment. Has three categories:
Normative ethics, Meta-ethics, and Applied Ethics.
Aesthetics examines the nature and meaning of art in
human experience and attempts to set artistic standards.
Social and political philosophy concerns with social
structures and political systems-examines theories of the
state and the roots of social obligations
Logic is the study or theory of principles of right reasoning
In addition to the standard fields of philosophy some
further areas should be mentioned—namely, where
philosophical concern relates itself to other disciplines, the
“philosophy of ______” category.
Examples are the philosophy of religion, philosophy of
science, philosophy of education, and philosophy of law.
The “philosophy of ______” studies are largely second-order
studies—that is, studies about studies.
An ordinary question, such as What is X? is called a first-
order question.
A question about a first-order question is called a second-
order question—for example, what is the meaning of the
question, what is X?
Second-order questions are also called Meta questions, or
“talk about talk.”
Importance of Learning Philosophy
Philosophy provides students with the tools they need to critically examine their own lives
as well as the world in which they live. Let us clarify it more.
Philosophy helps to achieve the most important characteristic of self-actualization:
Intellectual and Behavioral Independence:
 develop one‘s own opinion and beliefs.
 Reflective Self-Awareness,
 clear knowledge of oneself and the world in which one lives
 Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness:
 studying different philosophical perspectives or view points and become more tolerant, open-
minded, more receptive, and more sympathetic to views that contend or clash with ours
Creative and Critical Thinking:
 ability to develop original philosophical perspective on issues, problems, and events; and to
engage them on a deeper level.
Conceptualized and well-thought-out value systems in morality, art, politics, and the
like.
 provides us with an opportunity to formulate feasible evaluations of value; and thereby to find
meaning in our lives.
Moreover, studying philosophy helps us to deal with the uncertainty of living, meaning it
helps us to realize the absence of an absolutely ascertained knowledge, and hence prepare
ourselves to the ever growing human knowledge.
Discuss the differences among reason, emotion, opinion,
and faith. And explain the common and separate role of
these concepts.
Discuss the materialistic and Spiritualistic understanding of
reality.
What is reality and how we understand it?
Chapter Two: Basic Concepts of Logic
What is logic? How logical are you?
Its etymological meaning is derived from Greek word “logos”
which means reason or reasoning.
 Reasoning is the instrument up on which we humans must
depend wherever it is our object to reach judgments upon which
we can rely.
Work definition
According to hurly, Logic may be defined as the organized body
of knowledge, or science that evaluates arguments.
The question of logic is what are the principles of right
reasoning?
More precisely, logic is the study of methods for evaluating
whether the premises of an argument adequately support its
conclusion-it is about reasoning – about going from premises to a
conclusion.
 Argument
What is an argument?
An argument is an attempt to show that something is true by
providing evidence for it. It is a group of statements in which
one is said to follow from at least one other.
More technically, an argument is a set of statements
consisting of premises and a conclusion.
Example:
-It is immoral to kill persons.
-Capital punishment is the killing of persons.
-Therefore, capital punishment is immoral.
Statement and truth values
A statement: is a declarative sentence that is either true or
false, or that have a truth value.
Truth values: are the truth and falsity of a statement.
Examples of statements:
-Apple and orange are types of eat fruit.
- Technology helps human enhancement.
-Political candidates always tell the complete truth.
-No wives ever cheat on their husbands.
-Kenenesa bekele is an athlete and Adane Girma is a football player.
There are Sentences cannot be said to be statements or have
not truth values
Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, and
exclamations are not statements.
 Premise and Conclusion
The premises: are statements that give supporting evidence.
A conclusion: is what is allegedly supported by these statements. In
other words, the conclusion is the statement that is claimed to
follow from the premises.
Note that, the statements that make up an argument are divided
into one or more premises and one and only one conclusion
Examples of an argument:
1. -All human beings are mortal
-Socrates is human being
-Therefore, Socrates is mortal

2. -Some educated persons are critical thinkers.

-John is educated person
-Therefore, John is critical thinker.
Identifying Premises and Conclusion in an Argument
There are two ways:
1. By indicator words
2. By examining statements in an argument/ presence of
an inferential relationship
1. By indicator words
Conclusion Indicators Premise Indicators
therefore, wherefore, accordingly, Since, as indicated by, because, for,
thus, consequently my inferred from

Example of argument that have conclusion indicator

 Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain.
Consequently, torture is not a reliable method of interrogation.
Example of argument that have premise indicator
 Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the
use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus.
2. By examining statements in an argument
Some arguments contain no indicators.
Example:
 The space program deserves increased expenditures in the
years ahead. Not only does the national defence depend on
it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of
technological spin-offs. Furthermore, at current funding
levels the program cannot fulfil its anticipated potential.
The conclusion of this argument is the first statement, and
all of the other statements are premises. When the argument
is restructured according to logical principles the conclusion
is always listed after the premises:
P1: The national defense is dependent on the space program.

P2: The space program will more than pay for itself in terms
of technological spinoffs.

P3: At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill

its anticipated potential.

C: The space program deserves increased expenditures in the

years ahead.
Recognizing Arguments
Not all passages contain arguments.
A passage contains an argument if it purports to prove
something; if it does not do so, it does not contain an
argument

Thus, two conditions must be fulfilled for a passage to purport to prove

something:
1. At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or
reasons. (I.e. the premises)
2. There must be a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons supports or
implies something— that is, a claim that something follows from the
alleged evidence. (I.e. the conclusion)
In fulfilling these conditions:
It is not necessary that the premises present actual evidence or true
reasons nor that the premises actually support the conclusion. (I.e.
factual/ realistic claim). But at least the premises must claim to present
evidence or reasons, and there must be a claim that the evidence or
reasons support or imply something (I.e. inferential claim).
a claim can be either explicit or implicit.
An explicit claim is usually asserted by premise or conclusion
indicator words (“thus,” “since,” “because,” “hence,”
“therefore,” and so on).
An implicit claim exists if there is an inferential relationship
between the statements in a passage, but the passage
contains no indicator words.
Inferential claim is simply the claim that the passage
expresses a certain kind of reasoning process—that
something supports or implies something or that something
follows from something, regardless of its coherence with
reality)
Inference can be expressed in narrow and broad sense.
In the narrow sense, inference is the reasoning process
expressed by an argument.
 In the broad sense of the term, “inference” is used
interchangeably with “argument.”
Typical kinds of non-arguments
simple non inferential passages, expository passages,
illustrations, explanations, and conditional statements are
typical kinds of non-arguments
1. simple non inferential passages: these are
unproblematic passages that lack a claim that anything is
being proved. Passages of this sort include: Warnings,
Pieces of advice, Statements of belief or opinion,
Reports, and Loosely associated statements.
2. Expository Passages:This expression is a kind of discourse
that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more
sentences that develop the topic sentence.
Example: consists of a statement about a certain subject
combined with a reference to one or more specific examples
intended to demonstrate that statement.
3. Illustrations: consists of a statement about a certain subject combined with a
reference to one or more specific examples intended to demonstrate that statement.

4. Explanation: is a group of statements that purports to shed light on some event or

phenomenon. The event or phenomenon in question is usually accepted as a
matter of fact. Every explanation is composed of two distinct components: the
explanandum (i.e. the statement that describes the event or phenomenon to be
explained) and explanans (i.e. the statement or group of statements that purports to
do the explaining.) Example: The sky appears blue from the earth’s
surface(explanandum) because light rays from the sun are scattered by
particles in the atmosphere. (explanans)

5. A conditional statement: is an “if . . . then . . .” statement

Every conditional statement is composed two parts, the first is called “antecedent”,
the statement that immediately follows the “if”, and the second component is known
as the “consequent”, it is the part following the “then” of the conditional statement.
for example: if Ethiopia’s economy grows (antecedent), then the life of the people will
be improved(consequent).
A conditional statement may serve as either the premise or
the conclusion (or both) of an argument, if it written in
hypothetical form.
example:
If the government of Ethiopia is democratic state, then the
citizens of Ethiopia will exercise freedom. Ethiopia is a
democratic state. Therefore, the citizens of Ethiopia are
exercising freedom.
conditional statements are especially important in logic (and
many other fields) because they express the relationship
between necessary and sufficient conditions. A is said to be a
sufficient condition for B whenever the occurrence of A is all
that is needed for the occurrence of B. For example, being a
dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal. Being an
animal is a necessary condition for being a dog.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with “necessary” or “sufficient” to make
the following statements true.
1. Being Buffalo is ______condition for being an animal.
2. Being Africa is ______condition for being Ethiopia.
3. Being an animal is a ______ condition for being a tiger.
4. Drinking a glass of water is a ______ condition for
quenching one’s thirst.
5. Heating water is a ______ condition for brewing coffee.
6. Burning leaves is a ______ condition for producing smoke.
7. Paying attention is a ______ condition for understanding a
lecture.
Types Argument: Deductive and Inductive
Based on the relationship between their premises and the
conclusion there are two types of arguments: deductive and
inductive arguments.
In both case every argument claim that its premises provide
grounds for the truth of its conclusion.
The two types of argument differ, how over, with respect to the
ways in which the premises support the conclusion.
Deductive arguments are those in which the premises adequately
support the truth of its conclusion.
In other words, deductive argument is formed in such a way that
there is a necessary relationship between its premises and the
conclusion.
Inductive arguments, however, are those in which the evidences
provide partial support to the truth of their conclusion. In such
types of arguments, there is only a probable relationship between
the truth of the premises and the truth of its conclusion.
Deductive argument: is an argument
in which if the premises are assumed
true, it is impossible for the
conclusion to be false.
Example:
All Ethiopian are smart
Sara is an Ethiopian.
Therefore, necessarily Sara is smart.
Thus, Deductive arguments are those
that involve necessary reasoning.
Take simple examples.
Socrates is a man
All men are mortal
Therefore Socrates is mortal
Belete is a human
All humans have brains
:-Belete has a brain
Inductive argument: is an argument
in which if the premises are assumed
true, it is improbable for the
conclusion to be false.
Example:
Most Ethiopians are smart
Sara is Ethiopian
Therefore, probably Sara is smart
In inductive reasoning we might have sufficient
evidences, but we cannot be absolutely sure
about the truth of reality of the conclusion.
Thus, Inductive arguments involve probabilistic
reasoning.
Example;
Swan 1 is white
Swan 2 is white
Swan 3 is white
Swan 1, 000 is white
It is therefore probably true that all Swans are
white
Scientific statements share several important features of
Inductive reasoning. Because they express probability, not
certainty.
Science is interested in what appears to be solvable. The
nature of science is to study small aspects of phenomena at
any time. But we are not certain because we can directly
observe only a tiny portion of the universe and We
cannot directly observe the future.  
We suppose that because the sun has risen every day in
the past, we have good ground for supposing it will rise
tomorrow. But from past observation we cannot arrive at
certain conclusion or on what will happen next. 
Can some sciences be described as exact? No.
What about mathematics?
Mathematics is not a science in the sense of observing,
identifying describing or explaining natural phenomena.
Science is based on observation, mathematics on the logical
consequences of a set of postulates.
Methods of identifying Deductive and inductive
argument
In deciding whether an argument is inductive or deductive,
we look to certain objective features of the argument. These
features include: (1) The occurrence of special indicator
words, (2) The actual strength of the inferential link between
premises and conclusion and (3) The form or style of
argumentation.
1. The occurrence of special indicator words
Deductive Indicators Inductive Indicators
“necessarily,” “certainly,” “absolutely,” and “improbable,” “probably,”
“definitely.” “plausible,” “implausible,” “likely,”
“unlikely,” and “reasonable to
conclude.”

Note that: the phrase “it must be the case that” is simply a conclusion
indicator that can occur in either deductive or inductive arguments.
2. The Actual Strength of The Inferential Link Between
Premises And Conclusion
Deductive Inductive
The conclusion actually does follow with The conclusion does not follow with strict
strict necessity from the premises. it is necessity but does follow with probably.
impossible for the premises to be true and
the conclusion false. It is possible for the premises to be true
Example: and the conclusion false.
-All men are mortal
-Abebe is a man. Example:
:-Abebe is mortal. -The vast majority of men are lazy.
-Belete is a man.
Here, it is impossible that Abebe to be :- Belete is lazy.
immortal. Because, the conclusion
follows with strict necessity from the Here, the conclusion does not follow from
premises the premises with strict necessity, but it
does follow with some degree of
probability. If we assume that the
premises are true, then based on that
assumption it is probable that the
conclusion is true
The Form or Style of Argumentation: a distinctive character
or form indicates that the premises are supposed to provide
absolute support for the conclusion.
Five examples of such forms or kinds of argumentation are
Arguments Based on Mathematics, Arguments from
Definition, And Categorical Syllogisms, Hypothetical
Syllogisms, and Disjunctive Syllogisms.

1. An argument based on Example

mathematics

an argument in which the conclusion a shopper might place two apples and
depends on some purely arithmetic or three oranges into a paper bag and
geometric computation or then conclude that the bag contains
measurement. five pieces of fruit.
 2. An argument from definition
is an argument in which the
conclusion is claimed to depend
merely on the definition of some
word or phrase used in the premise or
conclusion.
Example
-Someone might argue that because Abebe
is dishonest, it follows that he tells lies.
-Today is Tuesday. Therefore, tomorrow is
Wednesday.

3. Categorical syllogism Example

A categorical syllogism is a syllogism in All politicians are liars.
which each statement begins with one No liars are religious.
of the words “all,” “no,” or “some.” Therefore, no politicians are religious.

4. Hypothetical syllogism Example

A hypothetical syllogism is a
syllogism having a conditional
(“if . . . Then”) statement for
one or both of its premises.
If estate taxes are abolished, then wealth will
accumulate disproportionately. If wealth
accumulates disproportionately, then democracy
will be threatened. Therefore, if estate taxes are
abolished, then democracy will be threatened.
5. A disjunctive syllogism:
A disjunctive syllogism is a
syllogism having a disjunctive
statement (i.e., an “either . . . or .
. .” statement) for one of its
premises.
Either global warming will be stopped, or
storms will become more intense. Global
warming will not be stopped.
Therefore, storms will become more
intense.
Ethiopia is found either in Northern or
Eastern Africa. Ethiopia is Found in
Northern Africa. Therefore, Ethiopia is not
found in Eastern Africa.
Inductive Argument Forms
In general, inductive arguments are such that the content of
the conclusion is in some way intended to “go beyond” the
content of the premises.
Note that: In addition to its probabilistic reasoning, the
premises of inductive argument typically deal with some
subject that is relatively familiar, and the conclusion then
moves beyond this to a subject that is less familiar or that
little is known about.
Examples of such forms or kinds of argumentation are
predictions about the future, arguments from analogy,
inductive generalizations, arguments from authority,
arguments based on signs, and causal inferences.
1. people always reach assertions about the future based on
Argument their past and present experience. Why is prediction
from inductive? Because the future cannot be known with
Prediction certainty.
2. An is an argument that depends on the existence of an analogy, or
argument similarity, between two things or states of affairs. One of the two
from things is well known while the
analogy other is less known and the conclusion of this argument tries to
assert something about the less
known thing based on its similarity with the well-known
situation.
3. Inductive is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a selected
generalizati sample to some claim about the whole group. in this case,
on because the members of the sample have a certain characteristic,
it is argued that all the members of the group have that same
characteristic.
4. An is an argument that concludes something is true because a
argument presumed expert or witness has said that it is.
from
authority
 An is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a
argument sign to a claim about the thing or situation that the sign
based on symbolizes. Because the sign might be misplaced or
signs distorted, the conclusion is only probable.
A causal is an argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause to a
inference claim about an effect, or, conversely, from knowledge of an
effect to a claim about a cause.

 Scientific Arguments: are arguments that occur in science can be either inductive or
deductive, depending on the circumstances.

 arguments aimed at the discovery of a law of nature are usually considered inductive.
If we are going to apply an already discovered law: the argument is deductive, no new
conclusion.

• But if we acknowledge the fact that the conclusion affects the future by the possible
disproval of an accepted law, then the argument is best considered inductive.

 There is a tradition extending back to the time of Aristotle that holds that: Inductive
arguments are those that proceed from the particular to the general, and Deductive
arguments are those that proceed from the general to the particular. But, this does
not always work. Let we see some examples
Examples
1. All humans are mortal moves 4. If Socrates is human, then argument
Socrates is human from Socrates is mortal with
:-Socrates is mortal general to Socrates is human particular
particular :-Socrates is mortal propositio
n

2. Socrates is human and moves from 5. All cows are mammals and Arguments
mortal particular to have lungs. with
John is human and mortal general All whales are mammals and universal or
Michele is human and have lungs. general
mortal All humans are mammals and propositions
:- all humans are mortal have lungs.
:- all mammals have lungs.

3. All animals are mortal argument 6. Hitler was dictator and was Arguments
All humans are animals with ruthless with
:-all humans are mortal universal Stalin was dictator and was particular
proposition ruthless proposition
Castro is dictator
:-Castro probably is ruthless.
Thus, we characterize the two types of argument as follows:
A deductive arguments one whose conclusion is claimed to
follow from its premises with absolute necessity, not being
a matter of degree and not depending in any way on
whatever else may be the case
An inductive argument is one whose conclusion is claimed
to follow from its premises only with probability, not with
necessity. In other words, this probability being a matter of
degree and dependent upon what else may be the case.
Evaluation of Arguments
Central ideas and terminology: Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength and
Cogency
two basic claims we should look up in the evaluation of arguments, i.e. factual
claim and inferential claim.
1. Evaluating Deductive Argument: Validity and Soundness
 To use Hurley‘s terminologies the evaluation of any argument involves answering
two distinct questions: (1) Do the premises support the conclusion? (2) Are all the
premises true?
 Based on the answer for the first question, we have two forms of deductive
arguments, valid and invalid.
A Valid deductive Argument is an Argument in which it is impossible for the
conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
An invalid argument is a deductive argument in which it is possible for the
conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
The truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion tells us nothing about
validity except in the one case of true premises and false conclusion. Any
deductive argument having true premises and a false conclusion is necessarily
invalid.
1. All politicians are Athletes .
Aster Aweke is a politician.
:-Aster Aweke is an Athlete.
2. All U.S. presidents have been males.
Abraham Lincoln was a male.
:-Abraham Lincoln was a U.S. president.
3. If you overslept, you’ll be late.
You aren’t late.
:- You didn’t oversleep.
4. you overslept, you’ll be late.
You didn’t oversleep.
Therefore: -You aren’t late.
5. The fetus is an innocent human being.
The killing of innocent human beings is never permissible.
:-Abortion is never permissible.

Anyone who accepts the premises of a deductively valid argument must, unless they are
irrational, accept the conclusion. This means that deductively valid arguments always
satisfy one of the criteria for good arguments. This does not, however, mean that all
deductively valid arguments are good arguments. For instance, the 5th example assumes
that the fetus is a 'human being', and this has been widely debated. Premise two is also
controversial
Table 1.1 Deductive Arguments: validity and invalidity of an
argument can be shown in a truth-value as can be tested
below
Truth Valid Invalid
value

TP All flowers are plants. All flowers are plants.

TC All daisies are flowers. All daisies are plants.
:-all daisies are plants. Therefore, all daisies are flowers.

TP None exist All roses are flowers.

FC All daisies are flowers.
:-all daisies are roses.

FP All flowers are dogs. All dogs are flowers.

TC All poodles are flowers. All poodles are flowers.
:-all poodles are dogs. :-all poodles are dogs.

FP All flowers are dogs. All roses are cats.

FC All tigers are flowers. All daisies are cats.
:-all tigers are dogs. :-all daisies are roses.
Soundness and Deductive Argument
A sound Argument is a deductive argument that is valid and
has all true premises. Both conditions must be met for an
argument to be sound; if either is missing the argument is
unsound.

All true
Sound
Argument = Valid
Argument + Premises and
True conclusion

Thus, unlike validity which requires only the

examination of inferential claim, the Evaluation of
Soundness requires the examination of the factual
claim.
2. Evaluating Inductive Argument: Strength and Cogency
An inductive argument can be evaluated as Strong or weak
The Strength or weakness of an inductive argument results
not from the actual truth or falsity of the premises and
conclusion, but from the probabilistic support the premises
give to the conclusion.
Strength and Inductive Arguments
Strong Weak
A strong inductive argument is an a weak inductive argument is an
inductive argument in which it is argument in which the conclusion does
improbable that the conclusion be not follow probably from the premises,
false given that the premises are true. even though it is claimed to.

Unlike the validity and invalidity of deductive arguments, the strength and weakness
of inductive arguments admit of degrees. To be considered strong, an inductive
argument must have a conclusion that is more probable than improbable. Thus, the
likelihood that the conclusion is true must be more than 50%, and as the probability
increases, the argument becomes stronger
Examples
1. This barrel contains 100 apples. Three apples selected at
random were found to be ripe. Therefore, probably all 100
apples are ripe.
2. This barrel contains 100 apples. Eighty apples selected at
random were found to be ripe. Therefore, probably all 100
apples are ripe.
Itable 1.2. nductive Arguments: Strength and Cogency of an
argument can be shown in a truth-value as can be tested
below
Truth Strong Weak
Value

TP Every previous U.S. president was older A few U.S. presidents were lawyers.
Probably than 40. Therefore, probably the next Therefore, probably the next U.S.
TC U.S. president will be older than 40 president will be older than 40.

TP None exist A few U.S. presidents were

Probably unmarried. Therefore, probably the
FC next U.S. president will be
unmarried.

FP Every previous U.S. president was a TV A few U.S. presidents were dentists.
Probably debater. Therefore, probably the next Therefore, probably the next U.S.
TC U.S. president will be a TV debater. president will be a TV debater.

FP Every previous U.S. president died in A few U.S. presidents were dentists.
Probably office. Therefore, probably the next Therefore, probably the next U.S.
FC U.S. president will die in office. president will be a dentist.
Cogency and Inductive Argument
A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is strong and has all true
premises. Also, the premises must be true in the sense of meeting the total
evidence requirement. If any one of these conditions is missing, the argument is
uncogent.

All True Premises

Cogent Argument = Strong
Argument + and True
Conclusion
Evaluate the Validity and Soundness for deductive and
Strength and cogency for inductive arguments
1. -All sub Saharan countries are developed.
-Ethiopia is currently a developed country.
-:-Ethiopia is a sub-Saharan country.
Validity: __________ Soundness: ____________
2. –If Emperor Yohannes IV was beheaded, then Emperor Yohannes
IV was killed.
-Emperor Yohannes IV was beheaded.
-Therefore, Emperor Yohannes IV was killed.
Validity: ___________Soundness: _________
3. All the previous American presidents were women. Therefore,
probably the next American president will be a woman.
Strength: __________Cogency:___________
4. Since the beginning of life on earth the sun has always risen in the
east. Therefore, tomorrow the sun will probably rise in the east.
Strength: __________Cogency: __________
Chapter Three: Logic and Language: Meaning and
Definition
Chapter contents
Function of language
Varieties of Meaning

The Intension and Extension of Terms

Definitions and Their Purposes

Definitional Techniques

Criteria for good Definitions

Functions of Language
1. Informative Function/ to convey information
2. To express or evoke feelings /to express emotions,
feelings, or attitudes
Examples of Informative Examples of Emotive
• Flash drives allow data to be The death penalty is a cruel and
transferred from one computer to inhuman form of punishment in
another. which hapless prisoners are dragged
• The number of deaths linked to from their cells and summarily
prescription drugs is on the rise. slaughtered only to satisfy the
• Private insurance companies bloodlust of a vengeful public.
regularly overbill the Medicare  words “cruel,” “inhuman,”
program. “hapless,” “dragged,”
“slaughtered,” “bloodlust,” and
“vengeful” have a strong emotive
meaning

Statements or terminology that conveys information is said to have cognitive meaning.

And terminology that expresses or evokes feelings is said to have emotive meaning.
Logic is concerned chiefly with cognitive meaning.
A value claim is part of the cognitive meaning of emotive
statements. A value claim is a claim that something is good,
bad, right, wrong, better, worse, more important, or less
important than some other thing. Unlike emotive words,
Value claims as such normally require evidence to support
them.
For example, the claim that the death penalty is immoral
cannot simply stand by itself. So, we must be able to separate
the value claims of emotively charged statements from the
emotive meaning.
Using words such as "crazy,” “stupid,” or “weird” to express bad
or wrong caused when people unable or unwilling to give
reasons for their claim. Also, people can use words as
“awesome” or “fantastic” to express the claim that something
is good. Those who happen to be listening, especially if they
are friendly with the speaker, will often accept these claims
without hesitation.
 Deficiency of Cognitive Meanings
Language having cognitive meaning can be defective. These
are vagueness, ambiguity and obscurity
1. Vagueness: A vague expression is one that allows for
borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the
expression applies or does not apply.
Vague expressions often allow for a continuous range of
interpretations. The meaning is imprecise.
For example, words such as “bald,” “love,” “happiness,”
“peace,” “excessive,” “fresh,” “rich,” “poor,” “normal,”
“conservative and “polluted” are vague. Such troubles
arise only when the language is not sufficiently precise for
what the situation demands.
For example: I see many bald people. This is vague because it
is not precise.
2. Ambiguity: An ambiguous expression is one that can be
interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning
in a given context.
words such as “Sex”, “light,” “proper,” “critical,” “stress,”
“mad,” “inflate,” “chest,” “bank,” “sound,” and “race” can
be used ambiguously.
Example: DR Haylu talked about sex in the seminar
room.
3. Obscurity: obscured wards are difficult to understand the
meaning.
Example: cosmic force
Meaning of Terms
The cognitive meaning of terms comprises two kinds:
The Intension (connotative) and Extension (denotative)
meaning of Terms.
First, what is a term?
A term is any word or arrangement of words that may serve
as the subject of a statement. Terms consist of proper names,
common names, and descriptive phrases. Examples:
Proper names Common names Descriptive phrases
John, Ethiopia, Country, animal, sea, First president of U.S.A., author of
Lake Tana house, person, activities animal farm, books in my library,
blue things, those who study hard

Words that are not terms include verbs, nonsubstantive, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, and all non syntactic arrangements of words.
Because, none can serve as the subject of a statement.
The Intension (connotative) and Extension (denotative)
meaning of Terms
The intentional meaning, or intension, consists of the
qualities or attributes that the term connotes, and the
extensional meaning, or extension, consists of the members of
the class that the term denotes.
Examples:
The connotation of the term man is a rational animal. Because
this refers to attributes of human beings that makes unique or
different from others.
The extension of the term man is persons such as abebe,
kebede, chaltu, john, rahel etc. Because it refers to the class or
set of things made up of individual elements.
The extension of a term changes from time to time, although its
intension does not. The extension of the term person, it is said,
for example, changes continually as people die and babies are
born.
Increase or Decrease of an intentional and ext
ensional meaning of a term
An intentional and extensional meaning of a term can be
increased or decreased according to the increase or
decrease of attributes and set of things added to the term.
This means, when the intentional meaning increases, the
extensional meaning decreases and vice versa.
Example
Group terms in the order of decreasing extension:
Drink, soft drink, carbonated soft drink, Pepsi.
Groups of terms in the order of decreasing intension:
Newsweek, news magazine, magazine, publication

Intensional increases/ Extensional decreases

Universe Solar System Helo-centrism Planet Earth
Extensional increase/ Intensional decreases
Empty extension
What is Empty extension?
If things have no real reference or living testimony, they
regarded as Empty extension
Terms such as Satan, dinosaur, blue horse, God, angel,
unicorn, etc have no testimony or tangible members of a
class are absent, that is they have empty (zero) set of
members.
Definitions and Their Purposes
What is the definition of definition?
We may define definition as a group of words that assigns a meaning
to some word or group of words.
Accordingly, every definition consists of two parts: definiendum and
definiens
The symbol being defined is called definiendum (the definiendum is
the word or group of words that is supposed to be defined)
The symbol or group of symbols being used to explain the meaning
of the definiendum is called the definienes (definiens is the word or
group of words that does the defining)
Examples:
 “Puppy” means young dog.
“Hammer” means a tool used for driving nails.
“Mission” means a specific task that a person is sent to perform.
“Expert” means a person who has special skill or knowledge in a
particular field"
NB. It would be a mistake to say that the definiens is the meaning of the
definiendum; rather the definiens is another symbol or group of symbols
that has the same meaning as the definiendum.
Purposes of definition
To resolve disputes that are merely subjective and complex
by exposing and eliminating words such as obscurity,
vague or ambiguous expressions,
To prevent or correct mistakes in reasoning,
To introduce unusual or unfamiliar words,
To influence or persuade the attitude of others based on
correct reasoning, etc.
Types of definitions
1. Lexical Definitions or dictionary definition :
this assigns a meaning to the old or already used within a language
community.
The purpose of this definition is to report or to inform someone else of
accepted or conventional meaning of a term.
Hence, accurate lexical definition is helpful to avoid ambiguity of a term.
Example 'Rest' means (1) the repose of sleep, (2) an interval of silence between
notes, (3) a period of inactivity.
A term can be ambiguous when it has two or more meanings in a given context.
 For example, the term humanity refers either the human race, or
benevolence. We should use the meaning of this term in its proper context in
order to avoid ambiguity.
A lexical definition may be either true or false.
Definition that can be true or false
1. The word “mountain” means a large mass of earth or rock rising to a
considerable height above the surrounding country. This is true, since it
reported correctly.
2. The word “mountain” means a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines. This
is obviously false.
2. Stipulative definitions:
A stipulative definition assigns a meaning to a word for the
first time. It is a new symbol, not familiar. New terms may be
introduced for variety reasons:
to replace a more complex expression with a simpler one
To assign new phenomenon, or development. In the
science especially, new symbols often are introduce and
defined.
to set up secret codes( the stipulation may be understood
only by the sender and the receiver of the message)
a stipulative definition is neither true nor false. Neither
accurate nor inaccurate. Because a stipulative definition is a
completely arbitrary assignment of a meaning to a word for
the first time.
Example: 'Fox head' means “a person whose head is filled
with misinformation from listening to Fox News”
Précising definitions:
Stipulative and lexical definitions serve to reduce ambiguity.
The purpose of a précising definition is to reduce the vagueness of a word by
providing specific and restricting meaning to a conventional term.
When a term is defined precisely, it means that the definition is not either too
broad or too narrow.
The terms like: force, energy, acid, element, number, equality, contract, and
agent have all been given précising definitions by specific disciplines.
 For example, if legislation were ever introduced to give direct financial assistance
to the poor, a precising definition would have to be supplied specifying exactly
who is poor and who is not.
Examples:
 “Poor’ means having an annual income of less than $10,000 and a net worth of less
than $20,000” is an example of a précising definition.
 A ticket purchaser is a senior if and only if he/she is at least 55 years old.
 Bright means having an intensity of at least 5000 candle power.

 Like lexical definition, précising definition is reportive and evaluated as true or

false.
Unlike lexical definition, the purpose of précising definition is to avoid vagueness,
while Lexical is to avoid ambiguity.
4. Theoretical Definitions: A theoretical definition assigns a
meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives a certain
characterization to the entities.
 It is a definition that attempts to formulate a theoretically
adequate or scientifically useful description of the objects to
which the term applies.
Examples:
Water means a molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms
bonded to one oxygen atom.
Mind means the region of the brain that manipulates symbols.
Like stipulative definitions, theoretical definitions are neither
true nor false. Why?
The reason is that theoretical definitions function as proposals
to see or interpret some phenomenon in a certain way.
For example, What is justice? There are numbers of theories to
answer this question. Justice for Plato is absolutely different from
Nietzsche.
5. Persuasive Definitions:
This kind of definition formulated to convince listeners or readers over
certain issues. Or, to produce a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward
what is denoted by the definiendum.
This purpose is accomplished by assigning an emotionally charged or value-
laden meaning to a word.
Examples:
“Religion” means an institutionalized mythical belief that undermines our
capacity to reason. This is unfavorable attitude towards religion. Others can
change this definition into favorable.
“Marijuana” means a dangerous drug made from the hemp plant that leads
its users to cocaine, heroine, and a life of addiction.( unfavorable)
“Abortion” means a safe and established surgical procedure whereby a
woman is relieved of an unwanted burden. (favourable)
“Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings.
(unfavorable)
While persuasive definitions may, like lexical definitions, be evaluated as
either true or false, the primary issue is neither truth nor falsity but the
effectiveness of such definitions serves as instruments of persuasion. Or its
main purpose is to convince the attitude of others.
Techniques of intensional and extensional definition
I. Extensional
II. Intensional

III.Extensional (Denotative) definition

 This technique is the one that assigns a meaning to a
term by indicating the members of the class that the
definiendum denotes. it is also known as definition by
naming.
There are three kinds of Extensional definitions :
a. Enumerative, and
b. Definitions by subclass.
c. Demonstrative or ostensive
a. Enumerative definitions: it is a method of definition in which a term is defined by
providing complete or partial list of members of the class entities that the term refers
to. Examples: “Continent” means regions such as Africa, Asia, Europe, America,
and Australia. “Physicist” means someone such as Stephen Hawking, Albert
Einstein. “Philosopher” means such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
b. A definition by subclass: a term can be defined by naming those sub groups which
are belonged under the major group. Examples: “Plant” means things such as trees,
grasses, fruits and vegetables. “Reptile” means a snake, lizard, turtle, crocodile, and
so on. “Profession” means like Teacher, Medical Doctor, Philosopher, scientist.
c. Demonstrative (ostensive) definitions: Are probably the most primitive form of
definition
-Meaning by pointing to things.
this definition assigns meaning to a term by showing or demonstrating the object
physically. This is useful when two or more persons have different language background
during conversation.
Example: “Chair” means this, this and that, as you point to a number of chairs, one
after the other.
These definitions are the most limited because:
1. the required objects must be available for being pointed at. For example, if one
wishes to define the word “Sun” and it happens to be night time.
2. do not involve a group of words rather gesture like pointing
II. Intensional (Connotative) Definitions
Intensional: This is the one that assigns a meaning to a
word by indicating the qualities or attributes that the
word connotes.,
there are at least four kinds of intensional definitions:
a. Synonymous definition,
b. Etymological definition,
c. Operational definition, and
d. Definition by genus and difference.
a. Synonymous Definition: This definition is one in which the definiens is a single
word that connotes the same attributes as the definiendum. In other words, the definiens
is a synonym of the word being defined.
Examples
“Physician” means doctor.
Demolish' means destroy
“Intentional” means willful.
 “Observe” means see.
b. An etymological definition
It is a definition which is based on the word’s root.
Examples:
Logic from the Greek word logos or reason means the science that deals with
reasoning.
Radical is a word derived from the Latin word radix which means root.
C. An operational definition assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental
procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing.
Example:
 “Water changes in to vapor” if and only if it boils at 100 0c and changes liquid state into gaseous.
 “A battery is dead” if and only if a battery tester shows no deflection when connected to the two poles.
d. A definition by genus and difference
 A definition by genus and difference assigns a meaning to a term by
identifying a genus term and one or more difference words that,
when combined, convey the meaning of the term being defined.
 To explain how it works, we must first explain the meanings of the terms
genus, species, and specific difference. In logic, genus and species
have a somewhat different meaning than they have in biology. In logic,
 Genus: means a relatively larger class
 Species: means a relatively smaller subclass of the genus.
 Difference: means the attribute/s that distinguish the various species with
in a genus.
Examples:
Species Difference Genus
“Daughter” means Female Offspring
“Husband” means married man
“Contract” means an agreement enforceable by law
“Ice” means frozen water.
“Skyscraper” means very tall building.
Criteria for Lexical Definitions
There are 8 criteria for good definition.
1. Definition Should be stated with Standards of Proper Grammar
Example:
“Breakfast” is when a man eats something.
 We can correct this as: “Breakfast” is when an eating take place in the morning after an individual
gets up from bed.
 “Construction” is when an individual constructs a bridge.
 Construction‖ is a process of building something like bridge, house, apartment etc.
2. Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning of the Word Being Defined
Example:
“Traffic light” means a red, green, or yellow light found on street and highway intersections.
 When we correct it: a visual signal to control the flow of traffic at intersections

3. Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow

Example:
A “roof” is part of the house used to prevent light from penetrating into the house. Here, the
definiens fails to include different attribute of a roof or fail to include all functions of a roof.
Hen means an animal that haves two legs.
 adult female chicken or Bird.
Human being means educated people.
 Human being‖ means a rational animal that has the capacity to speak.
4. Definition Should Avoid Circularity
Example:
“Keyboard” means a board with keys.
“A teacher” is one who teaches.
“Card less phone” means a telephone that has no card.
“Chewing gum” means gum for chewing
5. Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative.
Example:
“Practical” means not being impractical.
“Possible” means anything that is not impossible.
“Personal” means not being impersonal.
“War” is the absence of peace.
 We should not ignore here the fact that there are terms that require negative definitions
but the point is when a term can be defined positively, it should not be defined negatively.
6. Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague, or Ambiguous Language
Example: "Sex is the salt of life" (figurative) 'Healthy' means feeling good"(vague) we talked
about sex. (ambiguous)

7. Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology

Example: "'Feminism' means a socialist antifamily movement created by ugly women to rob
men of their natural entitlements“
“Ethiopia” is a country of illiterate and hungry people.
8. Definition Should Indicate the Context by the defining terms
 Whenever the definiendum – a term or a word that is being defined - has different
meanings in different time and contexts, referring or indicating the context in which we
are using to define the term is indispensable.
Example:
“Strike” means (in fishing) a pull and line made by a fish in taking the bait.
“Strike” means (in bowling) the act of knocking down all the pins with the first ball of a
frame.
Chapter 5: Informal Fallacies
Chapter content
 Fallacies in General
 Fallacies of Relevance
 Fallacies of Weak Induction
 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Illicit
Transference
 Fallacies in Ordinary Language