Presentation On Material Manufacture

Manufacture of steel products
by B.Raghunathan
• We encounter the following steel products during our
inspection activities .
• 1) Steel plates. 2) Pipes
3) Tubes . 4) Forgings
5) Fasteners .
• In the foregoing slides we will discuss what are their mother
materials , how they are made and what are the
possible defects .
TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 1

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• The basic mother product for steel is iron .
• Naturally occurring iron ore , which is nothing but
iron oxide is converted to iron in blast furnace.
• This iron is called pig iron and quite impure ,
• Pig iron contains about 4.5 % of carbon , besides
high amount of other elements such as manganese ,
silicon and phosperous .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• Pig iron is refined to remove the impurities by using various
processes such as Acid bessemer , Basic bessemer ,
Open hearth process , Basic oxygen process and
electric steel making.
• During refining carbon gets converted to carbon monoxide
and manganese , silicon , phosphorous goes into slag.
• Now we have refined iron .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• Refined iron is devoid of impurities , but contains
dissolved gases .
• As oxygen is used during refining process , this gets
dissolved in the molten iron .
• Refined iron which is pure is converted into steel by adding
the external elements in desired quantity .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• This pure iron is then transferred into ladle and external
element such as Ferro silicon , Ferro chrome and coke
breeze are added in measured quantities to obtain the
desired chemistry .
• Now it is no more iron , it is steel
• Chemical analysis check is carried out to confirm the
required chemistry . This is called ladle analysis .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• The steel thus obtained has got still dissolved gases such as
nitrogen , hydrogen and oxygen .
• Of these three gases the most problematic is oxygen.
• The dissolved oxygen in liquid steel will escape during
solidification .
• Oxygen has got affinity to carbon .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• So while escaping .oxygen forms carbon monoxide gas with
carbon .
• This gas leaves hot steel as it solidifies .
• Since solidification of steel starts from outside edge towards
the center , we will have different levels of oxygen and
carbon in the final solid.

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• The outer rim will have very low amount of carbon and the
central core will have maximum carbon .
• As you can see now , this problem is due to the presence of
oxygen .
• So the oxygen is reduced much before solidification by a
process called de oxidation .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• Depending upon the effect of de oxidation we get three
types of steel.
• Rimmed steel . ( No de oxidation )
• Semi –Killed steel ( Partial de oxidation )\
• Fully Killed ( Full de oxidation )
• De oxidation is done using manganese , silicon ,
aluminum,titanium and vanadium .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• Rimmed steels are those in which carbon oxygen reaction is
fully allowed. Carbon gets depleted
• Semi killed steel are those in which carbon oxygen reaction is
partly allowed. Carbon gets partially depleted
• Fully killed steel are those in which carbon oxygen reaction
is not fully allowed. Carbon is retained
• Vacuum de gassing ls one method which is used for removal
of dissolved gases.
by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel
• Steel thus made is solidified in to various shapes and the
end product obtained is cast steel.
• One of the method of obtaining steel casting is a continuous
casting mill .

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel

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• 1) Steel

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• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• 1) Steel Plates

by B.Raghunathan
• Steel Plates
• Defects expected and means of finding
1.Lamination
• Ultrasonic testing normal probe
2) Drag marks, pitting , mill scale and rusting
• Visual inspection .
3) Thickness , length , width
• Thickness by calibrated vernier or micrometer
• Length and width by calibrated tapes .

by B.Raghunathan
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram

by B.Raghunathan
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram

by B.Raghunathan
2) Pipe manufacturing

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1

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Pipe manufacturing

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Pipe manufacturing

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Pipe manufacturing

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Pipe manufacturing
Inspection of pipes :
1)Ovality Check with calibrated vernier across dia
at 90 degrees. Check on both ends .
2) Diameter Check with calibrated vernier .
•Two vernier are preferred . One locked to permitted min and
the other locked to max . Check at random location all along the
pipe.

by B.Raghunathan
Pipe manufacturing
Inspection of pipes :
3) Wall thickness
• Checked with calibrated vernier on both ends.
Two verniers locked to minimum thickness and max thickness
and used as GO –NOGO
4) Length Measured with calibrated tape
5) Bends Visual inspection
6) Surface defects Visual inspection

by B.Raghunathan
Pipe manufacturing
7) Internal surface defects
•Visual inspection against natural light .
8) Cracks and pin holes
•Hydro testing
•Eddy current testing

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Towards the end of the last century, seamless steel tube
plants were set-up in U.S.A. to cater to the tube requirements of
the bicycle frame.
There was rapid development in the petroleum sector. The
petroleum sector consumed large quantities of seamless steel
tubes for drilling, casing, transport, etc. Since then, as of today,

the
petroleum sector accounts for the bulk of the usage of seamless
tubes and pipes.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The major processes used for production of seamless hollows
are as follows:
(i)Piercing & Rolling (ii) Extrusion
(iii) Casting & Rolling (iv) Powder Metallurgy
The majority of the seamless pipes are
produced by piercing and rolling or by extrusion

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Piercing of a billet which may be of round or rectangular
(gothic) cross section may be done
(a)on a Piercing Press or (b) in a Press Piercing Mill or
(c) in a Rotary Piercing Mill.
The principle of the rotary piercing mill ,which contains two
barrel shaped rolls positioned at skew angle was developed
by Mannesmann Brothers in Germany in the last century.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
As a round billet is fed into this mill, it is imparted a combined
rotational and axial advance motion.
The stresses generated induce an opening tendency at the
billet centre.
By positioning a suitable mandrel, advantage of this tendency
is taken to form a hollow with controlled internal and external
diameters.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Several variations of the rotary piercing mill have been
developed which include Stiefel Mill,
Mannesmann Piercing Mill,
Diescher Piercing Mill and the most recent
Cone-type Piercing Mill.
The rotary piercing is the most commonly employed process
for preparation of hollows.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The hollow bloom obtained by piercing is further
elongated into a shell by adopting one of the several
following processes:
(i) Plug Mill (ii) Push Bench & CPE
(iii) Diescher Mill iv) Pilger Mill
v) MPM (Multi-stand Pipe Mill) vi) Assel Mill
(vii) Mandrel Mill viii) PSW or 3-roll Planetary Mill
(ix) Extrusion Press

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The Planetary Mill process has been adopted for
manufacture of tubes.
Although a number of advantages are claimed,
the process is complex and has not been popular.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Manufacture of seamless steel tubes by extrusion is a
well established process.
It has certain advantages with respect to quality.

However,
the production costs are higher and hence extrusion
process is used generally for manufacture of stainless
steel and high alloy steel tubes or nickel
base alloy tubes, which fetch higher prices.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The above processes are used in the hot condition.
The hot formed tubes are used for majority of the
Applications
For certain applications, tubes of smaller diameter,
higher mechanical properties or better surface finish
are required.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Such tubes are obtained by cold processing of the above
hot formed or mother tubes.
The two most commonly used processes for cold
processing are Pilger Mill and Cold Drawing

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The Pilger Mill is a discontinuous process in which a portion
of the tube is successively subjected to rolling between two
roll dies.
The main advantage of the process is that very high
reduction can be achieved.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
A number of developments have taken place in the Pilger
equipment whereby the process has been made an almost
continuous one by using full roller dies and multiple feeding.
The majority of this development work has been
done by M/s Mannesmann Group of Germany

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
The cold drawing of tubes is similar to wire drawing
except that generally a plug or mandrel is used to

control internal diameter.
The equipment is relatively less complex.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Defects that can be expected in tubes and how to find them :
1)Ovality
•Tube od to be checked by calibrated micrometer .
•Tube OD to be measured on diameters at 90 degrees across.
•Dia variations should be within plus minus 0.25 mm of the
mean dia as per para 8.3 of SA 450 of ASME sec II A.

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Defects that can be expected in tubes and how to find them
2) Diameter variation
•Should be checked with GO -NOGO ring gauge .
•Go ring gauge should fully run over the entire length of tubes
•NOGO should never enter the tube.
•Tolerance should be as per table 3 of SA 450 of ASME Sec II A

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Defects that can be expected in tubes and how to find them
3) Wall thickness
•To be checked by calibrated micrometer .
•Best way is have two micrometers .
•One micrometer is set to max permissible thickness of tubes
and second one is set to minimum permissible thickness
of tube .

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Defects that can be expected in tubes and how to find them :
•These two micrometers will now become GO –NOGO gage .
•Use both the micrometers all around the tube end , to eliminate
any possibility of eccentric drawing .
•Both the ends of tube should be checked .
•Wall thickness should lie within tolerance as permitted by
Table 2 of SA 450 of ASME sec II A .

by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
4) Chatter marks 5) Scoring marks 6) Dents 7) Bends
•The above four defects can be detected by visual inspection .
•While chatter marks , scoring marks and dents can be seen by
closure look at the tube , bends can be best seen by looking at
the tubes a little away .
•Natural light or LED flash light is the best option for VT .
•Internal surface should be inspected by holding tubes against
natural light .
by B.Raghunathan
Tube manufacturing
Defects that can be expected in tubes and how to find them:
•8) Pin holes 9) cracks
•These defects can be detected by testing as detailed in para 24
of SA 450 of ASME sec II a.
•Hydro test also will reveal the above defects .

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent
cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the
forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general
shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous
throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved
strength characteristics.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be
precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape
the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces
involved. All of the following forging processes can be
performed at various temperatures, however they are generally
classified by whether the metal temperature is above or below
the recrystallization temperature.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
If the temperature is above the material's recrystallization
temperature it is deemed hot forging; if the temperature is below
the material's recrystallization temperature but above 30% of the
recrystallization temperature (on an absolute scale) it is deemed
warm forging;

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
if below 30% of the recrystallization temperature (usually room
temperature) then it is deemed cold forging. The main advantage
of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed work hardening
effects are negated by the recrystallization process. Cold
forging typically results in work hardening of the piece

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and
then "dropped" onto the workpiece to deform it according to

the
shape of the die. There are two types of drop forging: open-die
drop forging and closed-die drop forging. As the names imply,
the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully
enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
.
OPEN DIE FORGING
Open-die drop forging (with two dies) of an ingot to be
further processed into a wheel
Open-die forging is also known as smith forging.[6] In open-
die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms the workpiece,
which is placed on a stationary anvil.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies
(the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not
enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except where
contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator, or a robot,
needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired
shape.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
. The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially
shaped surface for specialized operations. For example, a die
may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to
form holes or be a cut-off tool

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
. Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In
impression-die forging, the metal is placed in a die
resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually
the hammer die is shaped as well.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
.
. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece,
causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The
hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on
the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and
complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped
multiple times in quick succession.

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities,
forming what is referred to as flash. The flash cools
more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool
metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps
prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the
metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging the
flash is removed

by B.Raghunathan
3) Forging
•Ring rolling
The process of shaping weld less rings from pierced disks
or shaping thick walled ring shaped blanks between rolls
that control the wall thickness , ring dia , height and
contour .

by B.Raghunathan
Upsetting
The ring rolling process begins with the upsetting of the starting
stock on flat dies at its plastic deformation temperature.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
Piercing
Piercing involves forcing a punch into the hot upset stock displacing
metal radially and leaving a thin web of metal at the bottom.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
Shearing:
Shearing, removes the thin web producing a completed hole
through the stock.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
Preforming
This stock, referred to as a blank or preform, is now ready for the
ring rolling process.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
. Forming The doughnut-shaped preform is placed over the
mandrel.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
As the preform is rotated in the mill, the mandrel begins to apply
pressure toward the main roll. At the same time, the axial cones
apply pressure toward each other.

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
As a result of the radial and axial pressure, the ring's OD and ID
gradually increase while the thickness and wall section are
reduced

II. Piercing

by B.Raghunathan
Defects expected and means for finding :
1) Internal defects
•Magnetic particle testing. Ultrasonic testing
2) Surface defects
•Visual inspection . Dye Penetrant test
3) Dimensions
•Measurement with calibrated scales and verniers

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Manufacture of steel products

• We encounter the following steel products during our

• 1) Steel plates. 2) Pipes

• In the foregoing slides we will discuss what are their mother

materials , how they are made and what are the

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 1

• The basic mother product for steel is iron .

• Naturally occurring iron ore , which is nothing but

iron oxide is converted to iron in blast furnace.

• This iron is called pig iron and quite impure ,

• Pig iron contains about 4.5 % of carbon , besides

high amount of other elements such as manganese ,

silicon and phosperous .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 2

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 3

• Pig iron is refined to remove the impurities by using various

processes such as Acid bessemer , Basic bessemer ,

Open hearth process , Basic oxygen process and

electric steel making.

• During refining carbon gets converted to carbon monoxide

and manganese , silicon , phosphorous goes into slag.

• Now we have refined iron .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 4

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 5

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 6

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 7

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 8

• Refined iron is devoid of impurities , but contains

• As oxygen is used during refining process , this gets

dissolved in the molten iron .

• Refined iron which is pure is converted into steel by adding

the external elements in desired quantity .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 9

• This pure iron is then transferred into ladle and external

element such as Ferro silicon , Ferro chrome and coke

breeze are added in measured quantities to obtain the

• Now it is no more iron , it is steel

• Chemical analysis check is carried out to confirm the

required chemistry . This is called ladle analysis .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 10

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 11

nitrogen , hydrogen and oxygen .

• Of these three gases the most problematic is oxygen.

• The dissolved oxygen in liquid steel will escape during

• Oxygen has got affinity to carbon .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 12

• So while escaping .oxygen forms carbon monoxide gas with

• This gas leaves hot steel as it solidifies .

• Since solidification of steel starts from outside edge towards

the center , we will have different levels of oxygen and

carbon in the final solid.

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 13

central core will have maximum carbon .

• As you can see now , this problem is due to the presence of

• So the oxygen is reduced much before solidification by a

process called de oxidation .

TUV INDIA, Member of TÜV NORD Group 20/07/22 14

• Depending upon the effect of de oxidation we get three

• Rimmed steel . ( No de oxidation )

• Semi –Killed steel ( Partial de oxidation )\

• Fully Killed ( Full de oxidation )

• De oxidation is done using manganese , silicon ,