Lecture # 3

VISUAL REPRESENTATION
METHODS OF DATA
REPRESENTATION

Prepared By : Engr. Abbas Khan

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 Descriptive Statistics
◦ Statistical procedures used to summarise, organise, and
simplify data. This process should be carried out in such a
way that reflects overall findings
 Raw data is made more manageable
 Raw data is presented in a logical form
 Patterns can be seen from organised data
 Frequency tables
 Graphical techniques
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measures of Spread (variability)

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Data
Any set of information about a particular variable is
called data.
OR
The outcome of an experiment is called data.

Observation:
Each individual piece of data is called an observation,
and the collection of all observations for a particular
variable is called a data set.

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Data
Types
Numerical/Quantitative
Discrete:
The variate can only take one of a finite or
countable number of values
For-Example:
The number of cars arriving for service during a
particular period. (1,2,4,6,7……).
Number of car accidents etc.
Based on counting.
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Data
Types
Numerical/Quantitative
Continuous:
The variate is a measurement which can take any
value in an interval of the real line
For-Example:
• Weight of an individual, reaction time for a
particular process. 2.5. 2.55, etc.
• Length between two particular segments.

Based on actual measurement.

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Data
Types
Qualitative/Categorical
Ordinal:
Observations are not numerical values but they can be
ordered.

For-example:
• Excellent, good, fair, poor, worst
• Much improved, improved, same, worse, much worse

Arbitrary: black, green, yellow, white

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 Descriptive Statistics

Techniques for Data Representation

Analytical Methods Visual Representation

Classification Tabulation Graph Diagram

Bar chart Dot Plot

Data Array
Histogram Bar chart
Stem and Leaf Display
Frequency distribution Pictogram
Frequency Distribution
Frequency polygons Pie-diagram

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 INTRODUCTION
 One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which
statistical results may be presented is through diagrams and
graphs.

 Just one diagram or graph is enough to represent a given data

more effectively than thousand words.

 It easy to understand diagrams even for ordinary people.

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 Diagrams

 A diagram is a visual form for presentation of statistical data,

highlighting their basic facts and relationship.

 If we draw diagrams on the basis of the data collected, it will

be easily understood and appreciated by all.

 It is readily intelligible and save a considerable amount of time

and energy.

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 Significance of Diagrams and
Graphs

 They are attractive and impressive.

 They make data simple and intelligible.

 They make comparison possible

 They save time and labour.

 They have universal utility.

 They give more information.

 They have a great memorizing effect.

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Bar Chart

A bar chart is a pictorial representation of data in

which bars of uniform width are drawn with equal
spacing to the corresponding frequencies or number
of observations.

Bar chart can be plotted vertically and horizontally

with the most usual type being the vertical bar chart.

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Steps For Constructing Bar Chart
The main steps for the construction of bar chart are as follows:

 Obtain a relative-frequency distribution of the data.

 Draw a horizontal axis on which to place the bars and a
vertical axis on which to display the relative frequencies.
 For each distinct value, construct a vertical bar whose
height equals the relative frequency of that value.
 Label the bars with the distinct values, the horizontal axis
with the name of the variable, and the vertical axis with
Relative frequency.
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Simple Bar Chart
A simple bar chart consist of horizontal or vertical bar of
equal widths and lengths equal to value represented by
frequency.
Example: Draw a simple bar diagram to represent the
turnover of a company for 5 years.

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Simple Bar Chart
Example: Water quality analysis was carried out to find the
various percentages of the chemicals in water. Construct a bar chart
for the data given in the table.
Chemical Chlorine Fluorine Salts Lead Nitrates
Observation 30 40 25 20 53
(ppm)

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Simple Bar Chart

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Gantt Chart (Simple Bar Chart):
• It is a horizontal bar chart used in construction planning and
management.
• It is a bar chart showing various activities against time.
• On the left of the chart is a list of activities and on the top is a
suitable time scale.
• Each activity is represented by a bar, the position and length of
the bar reflects the start, duration and end of an activity.

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Multiple Bar Chart
A multiple Bar chart shows two or more characteristics
corresponding to value of a common variable in the form of grouped
bars whose lengths are proportional to the value of the
characteristics and each bar is colored differently.

Example: Draw Multiple bar diagram to show area and

production of cotton from the following data

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()
Multiple Bar Chart

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Component Bar Chart
A component bar chart is an effective technique in which each bar
is divided into two or more sections proportional in size to
component part of total being displayed by each bar.

Example: Draw a component Bar chart of Population city wise.

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Component Bar Chart

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Data Representation

Grouping Methods of Quantitative Data

1. Single Value Grouping

2. Limit Grouping
3. Cutpoint Grouping

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Single Value Grouping
Example: Number of TV sets in each of 50 randomly
selected households

Number of TV sets Frequency

0 1
1 16
2 14 Single Value Grouping
3 12
4 3
5 2
6 2 22
Limit Grouping
Example: The 14 measurements of tensile strength of sheet
of steel are recorded as follows:

Class Intervals Frequency

78-81 2
82-85 2
86-89 7
90-93 2
94-97 0
98-101 1

Limit Grouping
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Cutpoint Grouping

Example: The following table gives the speeds, in miles per

hour, over 1/4 mile for 35 cheetahs. Use cutpoint grouping
with 52 as the first cutpoint and classes of equal width 2.

DO BY YOURSELF
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Histogram

• A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative

data on a horizontal axis and the frequencies
(absolute, relative frequencies, percent's) of those
classes on a vertical axis.
• The frequency (absolute, relative frequency,
percent) of each class is represented by a vertical
bar whose height is equal to the frequency
(absolute, relative frequency, percent) of that class.
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Histogram
A histogram displays a range of values of a variable
that have been broken into groups or intervals with
no breaks in between the bars.
Histograms are useful if you are trying to graph
a large set of data

Note: Some statisticians and technologists use class

marks or class midpoints centered under the bars.

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Histogram
Frequency Histogram:
A histogram that uses frequencies on the vertical
axis is called a frequency histogram.

Relative Frequency Or Percent Histogram:

A histogram that uses relative frequencies or
percent’s on the vertical axis is called a relative-
frequency histogram or percent histogram,
respectively.
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Histogram
Class Boundary:
These numbers are used to separate the classes so that there
are no gaps in the frequency distribution.
Note: For continuous data, class intervals and class
boundaries are same.

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Histogram (Discrete Data)
First, determine the frequency relative
and frequency of each x value.
Mark possible x values on a horizontal
scale.
Above each value, draw a rectangle whose height is
the relative frequency (or alternatively, the
frequency) of that value.
This ensures that the area of each rectangle
is
proportional to the relative frequency of the value.
If the relative frequencies of x=1 and x = 5 are .35
and .07, respectively, then the area of the rectangle
above 1 is five times the area of the rectangle above
5. 29
Histogram (Discrete Data)

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Histogram (Discrete Data)

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Histogram (Discrete Data)

Mode = Variable
with Highest
Frequency/Relative
Frequency

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Histogram (Discrete Data)

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Histogram (Discrete Data)

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Histogram (Continuous Data)
To make a Histogram for a large and/or continuous
data,
◦ Divide the data into intervals
◦ Count the number of observations in
each
interval
◦ Represent each interval with a bar indicating the
number of observations

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Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables
(Class Interval)

X f
95-99 1 ◦ Sometimes the spread of data is too
90-94 1 wide
85-89 0 ◦ Grouped tables present scores as
80-84 1 class
75-79 2 intervals
70-74 4  About 5-20 intervals
65-69 7
 An interval should preferably
60-64 0
55-59 6
be of equal width
50-54 3

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Histogram with Class Intervals/Class
Widths (Continuous Data)`

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Histogram with Equal Class
Intervals/Class Widths

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 Histogram with Class Intervals/Class
Widths
Class Formation
 There are no hard-and-fast rules concerning
either the number of classes or the choice of
classes themselves.
 Between 5 and 20 classes will be satisfactory for
most data sets.
 Generally, the larger the number of
observations in a data set, the more classes
should be used.
 A reasonable rule of thumb is

No of Classes = √ No of observations
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Histogram with Class Intervals/Class
Widths (Continuous Data)

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 Histogram with Un-equal Class
Intervals/Class Widths
 Equal-width classes may not be a sensible choice if a
data set “stretches out” to one side or the other
 After determining frequencies and relative
frequencies, calculate the height of each rectangle
using the formula

Density = Relative frequency of class

Class width
 The resulting rectangle heights are usually
called
densities, and the vertical scale is the density scale.

 When class widths are unequal, not using a density

scale will give a picture with distorted areas. 41
Histogram with Un-equal Class
Intervals/Class Widths

 If a large number of equal-width classes are used, many

classes will have zero frequency.
 Using a small number of equal-width classes results in
almost all observations falling in just one or two of the
classes.
 A sound choice is to use a few wider intervals near extreme
observations and narrower intervals in the region of high
concentration. 42
Histogram with Un-equal Class
Intervals/Class Widths

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Histogram -Qualitative Data

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Histogram Shapes-Data Distribution

Unimodal: One peak

Bimodal:Two
Peaks

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Frequency Distribution: the Normal
Distribution
◦ Bell-shaped: symmetrical around the mid point,
where the greatest frequency of scores occur

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