MTH 103

General Mathematics III: Geometry, Vectors

and Dynamics.

MODULE
HANDBOOK

MTH 103 General Mathematics III (Geometry, Vectors and Dynamics) 1

 1.0 GEOMETRY OF LINES.

In this chapter we shall consider the geometry of lines.

Cartesian co ordinates

Given line x0 x and line y0 y cutting at right angle as shown below:

3 * A(2,3) *B(8,3)

x x x
- 4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

-2

-4 *C(2,-4)

y

Let the point of intersection of the two lines be 0, the origin; then the horizontal line x 0 x is
MTH103 – General Mathematics III (Geometry, Vectors and Dynamics) 2
called the x- axis while the vertical line y0 y drawn up the page is called y – axis with unit
distance marked off on them, positive in one direction and negative in the opposite direction. The
plane containing these two axes is called Cartesian plane.

Then the Cartesian coordinate of point A(2,3) as shown in the plane above is the movement of 2
units starting from the origin along +ve x – axis and then move 3 units in the direction of +ve y –
axis.

The x –coordinate or abcissa of point A is 2,

And the y - coordinate or ordinate of point A is 3.

The combination of the two gives A(2,3); note that the x – coordinate (abscissa) is stated first
before stating the y – coordinate (ordinate). Point C(2,-4) means that one moves 2 units along the
x – axis while one moves 4 units in the opposite direction y – axis.
MTH103 – General Mathematics III (Geometry, Vectors and Dynamics) 3
 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS OF KNOWN COORDINATES.

A line is that which joins two points. Let a point A ( x1 , y1 ) be joined to a point B ( x2 , y2 ) as
shown in the figure below:
y

B ( x2 , y2 )

A ( x1 , y1 ) C

x
0 D E

By dropping a perpendicular from Point A to OX at D and dropping a perpendicular from point

4
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
B to line OX at E, then dropping another perpendicular from point A to line BC at C; observe
that a right angle triangle ABC is formed. Observe that:
 _ 
AC  OD OE = x2  x1

 _ 
and BC  BE  CE  y2  y1

By applying Phytagoras theorem in triangle ABC, we have:

 _ 
AB  AC  BC 2
2 2


AB 2  x2  x1    y2  y1 
2 2


AB  x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2 (1)

(1) Is the distance formula, useful in finding the distance between any two given points of
known coordinates. 5
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 1.

Find the distance between point A(1, -2) and B(3,6).

Observe that A ( x1 , y1 ) = A(1,-2) and B ( x2 , y2 ) = B(3,6)


By applying the distance formula: AB  x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2

We have: AB  3  12  6  21 2

AB  22  42  20
AB  2 5units

MIDPOINT OF A LINE JOINING TWO POINTS

Given two points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) joined together by line AB, if point P ( x, y ) divides the

6
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
line into two equal parts as shown in the figure below:

B ( x2 , y2 )

P ( x , y)

A ( x1 , y1 ) D
E

x
0 F G H

Observe that a right angle triangle ABD is formed. By applying the midpoint theorem G is
the midpoint of FH, thus:

7
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 FG = GH

But FG = x  x1 and GH = x2  x

x  x1  x2  x
2 x  x1  x2
x1  x2
x
2

Being the x coordinate of point P

Similarly, by following the same procedure, it could be shown that the y coordinate of point
P is:

y1  y2
y
2

So that the coordinate of point P the midpoint of the line joining points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B
( x2 , y2 ) is given by:

 x  x y  y2 
P x, y   P  1 2 , 1 
 2 2  8
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 2

Find the midpoint of the line joining points A(2, -1) and B(4,3)

Solution:

 x1  x2 y1  y2 
By using the midpoint formula Px, y   P , 
 2 2 

We have:

 2  4  1  32 
P x , y   P  , 
 2 2 
6 2
 P ,   P(3,1)
2 2

Being the midpoint of the given line. 9

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 DIVISION OF A LINE IN A GIVEN RATIO

Suppose that the line joining points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) be divided in the ratio m:n where
m  n by point Px, y  as shown in the fig below:

B ( x2 , y2 )

n
P ( x, y )

C
m

A ( x1 , y1 ) D
E

x
0 F G H

By dropping perpendicular from point A, P and B to line OX at F,G and H respectively, 10

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
then x = OF +OG

m( FH )
= x1 
mn

m( x2  x1 )
 x1 
mn

x1 (m  n)  m( x2  x1 )

mn

nx1  mx2
x
mn

By following the same procedure, it can be shown likewise that

ny1  my2
y
mn

Hence the coordinate of point P(x,y) that divides line AB in the ratio m:n is given by:

 nx  mx2 ny1  my2 

P ( x, y )  P  1 , 
 m  n m  n  11
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 3

Find the coordinate of the point that divides the line joining point A(5,2) and B(6, -3) in the ratio
3:5.

Solution:

The coordinate of the point is given by:

 nx  mx2 ny1  my2 

P ( x, y )  P  1 , 
 m  n m  n 

Where ( x1 , y1 ) = (5,2), ( x2 , y2 ) = (6, -3) and m:n = 3:5

 55  36  52   3 3 

P( x, y )  P , 
 35 35 

 25  18 10  9 
P ( x, y )  P  , 
 8 8 

 43 1 
 P , 
 8 8

Being the coordinate of the given point joining the line. 12

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 4

Point P(3,7) is the coordinate of the point that divide the line joining points (6,2) and ( x2 , y2 ) in
the ratio 2:4; find the coordinate ( x2 , y2 ) .

Solution:

 nx1  mx2 ny1  my2 

By using P ( x, y )  P  , 
 mn mn 

 46  2x2  42  2 y2  

P(3,7)  P , 
 24 24 

 24  2 x2 8  2 y2 
= P , 
 6 6 

By comparing the lhs and the rhs of this, we have: 13

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 24  2 x2 8  2 y2
3 and 7 
6 6

 24  2 x2  18, and 8  2 y2  42
2 x2  18  24, and 2 y2  42  8
x2   6  3, and y2  36  18
2 2

Hence, the required coordinate is P ( x2 , y 2 ) = (-3,18)

Gradient of a line

Given a line joining points A ( x1, y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) as shown in the figure below:
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MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 B ( x2 , y2 )

A ( x1 , y1 )
 C ( x3 , y3 )

x
0 D E

By dropping a perpendicular from Point A to OX at D and dropping a perpendicular from point

B to line OX at E, then dropping another perpendicular from point A to line BC at C; observe
that a right angle triangle ABC is formed.

Observe that:

BC = BE – CE = y 2  y1
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MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 opp BC y  y1
Tan BAC =  = 2
adj AC x2  x1

Let the gradient of a line joining point A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) be m, then the gradient is given
by:

y2  y1
m
x2  x1

The gradient of a line is equally referred to as the slope.

PARALLEL LINES

Two lines AB and CD are said to be parallel if and only if their angle on inclination to the
horizontal is the same or when their gradient is the same.

m
 m


x
16
From the figure, the two lines AB and CD is parallel if and only if their gradient is the same,
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
meaning that their angles of inclination to the horizontal is the same; so if the gradient of line AB
is m1 while that of line CD be m2 ;

then m1  m2

PARPENDICULAR LINES

Two lines AB and CD with gradient m1 and m 2 respectively are said to be perpendicular if the
angle between them is 900 and the product of their gradient is equals to -1.

y
C
B

m1 
m

m2

A D
x

From the figure, the two lines AB and CD is perpendicular if and only if the angle between
17 them
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
is Ninety degrees and the product of their gradients is equals to -1,

That is m1m2  1

For example, if two lines are perpendicular and the grad of one of them is 2, to find the grad of
the other, we use:

m1m2  1
2m2  1
 m2   1
2

That is the grad of the second line is  1

2

EQUATION OF A LINE

The nomenclature of a line is its equation. When many lines are on a plane, the basis for for
making reference to any one of them is through its equations. It then becomes important to find
equation of a line so that to identify a particular one will be easier. Generally, the form of
equation of a line is ax  by  c  0 .

Writing equation of a line is of the following form viz: 18

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 (1) A point – gradient form

(2) Two points - gradient form

(3) A gradient intercept form

(4) Two intercepts form

We shall take each of this form and write equation of the line with the given information in each
of the cases.

(1) A point – gradient form

Given a line of gradient “m” passing through a point A ( x1 , y1 ) as shown in the fig below:

P ( x, y )
m

A ( x1 , y1 )

Let a point P ( x , y ) lie on the line, and construct our usual perpendiculars from line AP towards
19
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
positive x and y axis direction.

y  y1
Then gradient AP = m 
x  x1

y  y1  mx  x1 
y  y1  mx  x1   0

Is the equation of the given line.

Example 5

Write the equation of the line having gradient 3 and passing through point (1,5).

Solution:

y  y1
Then gradient AP = m 
x  x1

y  y1 y  5
m  3
x  x1 x 1
We have  y  5  3x  3
 y  3x  2  0 20
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Is the equation of the given line.

(1) Two points - gradient form

Given a line joining points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) the equation of the line can be found be
assuming another point P ( x, y ) on the line as shown below:

P ( x, y )

B ( x2 , y 2 )

A ( x1 , y1 )

By constructing our usual perpendiculars from line AP towards x axis from points B and P21we
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
have:

y2  y1
Grad AB =
x2  x1

y  y2
And grad BP =
x  x2

But grad AB = grad BP (Co linearity of points)

y2  y1 y  y2
That is 
x2  x1 x  x2

 y2  y1 x  x2    y2  y1 x2  x1 
 y2  y1 x  x2    y2  y1 x2  x1   0
Is the equation of the given line.

Example 6

Find the equation of the line passing through points A(3,-5) and B(2,-6). 22
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Solution:

y2  y1 y  y2
By using 
x2  x1 x  x2

 6  5 y  6
We have: 
23 x2

y  6 1
That is 
x  2 1

y6
1
x2
y6  x2
y  x8  0

This is the equation of the line. But this equation can be written in the form y  mx  c  0 as
y  x  8 Where m stands for the gradient of the line and c stands for the intercept of the line
with the y – axis; here the grad of the line is 1 while the intercept of the line with the y – axis is –
8
23
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 (3) A gradient - intercept form

Given a line of gradient “m” and having intercept “c” on the y – axis as shown below:

P(x,y)

m
(0,c)

As usual we assume a point P(x,y) on the line, then

24
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
The grad of the line is given by:

yc
m
x0
y  c  mx
y  mx  c

Being the equation of the given line.

(4) Equation of a line having double intercepts on the x and y axis.

Given a line having double intercepts “a” and “b” on the x and y axis respectively as shown in
the figure below:

x
A(O,b)

P(x,y)

B(a,0)
y

25
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
By assuming that a point P(x,y) lie on the line and constructing our usual perpendiculars from
point P to line OY and OX as shown on the fig, we have:

b y y0
Grad AP = and grad PB =
0 x xa

But the two grads are equal ( co linearity)

b y y0
That is 
0 x xa

b  y x  a    yx
bx  ab  yx  ay   yx
bx  ab  yx  ay  yx  0
bx  ay  ab

By dividing through this by “ab” we have:

x  y 1
a b

Being the equation of the line. 26

MTH103 - GEOMETRY
1.11 Sketching the graph of a straight line.
With the location of any two points of known
coordinates on a line, one can easily sketch the graph of
the line. Given the equation of the line, to find the
intersection of the line with the x axis, put y = 0 in the
equation of the line to obtain the x – coordinate of the
point. To find the intersection of the line with the y axis,
put x = 0 in the equation of the line to obtain the y –
coordinate of the equation of the point of intersection
with the y – axis, this is as illustrated with examples
below:
Example 26
Sketch the graph of the straight line defined by
the equation 3y + 2x – 5 = 0

27
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Solution
By putting x = 0 in the equation 3y + 2x – 5 = 0
We have 3y + 2(0) – 5 = 0
3y = 5

y= 5
3

Giving point A 0, 5 3  which lie on the given line,

similarly, by putting y = 0 in 3y + 2x – 5 = 0, we have:

3(0) + 2x – 5 = 0
2x = 5

x= 5
2
giving point B (5/2, 0) which lie on the line. We then plot
point A (0, 5/3) and B (5/2,0) and join these two points
by a straight line to obtain the required graph of the line
28
described by equation 3y + 2x – 5 = 0 as shown below:
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 A(0,5/3)

-2 1 1 2 3
B(5/2, 0)
Example 27
A straight line is defined by equation
6y + x – 16 = 0, sketch this line.
Solution
By putting x = 0 in the equation 6y + x – 16 = 0, we have:
6y +0 – 16 =0
6y = 16
y = 16/6 = 2.667
Giving point A (0, 2.67) which lies on the line. By
putting y = 0 in the equation 6y +x – 16 = 0, we have:
6(0) + x – 16 = 0
x = 16
29
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 y
A(0,2.67)

B(16, 0)
x

-8 -4 4 8 12 16 18

Example 28
Sketch the graph of the straight line represented
by : (a) x = -3, (b) y = 5 (c) y = 0.

Solution
For the equation of the straight line y = c, or x = a, the
sketching of the line reduces to drawing the line through
the given point (0,c) or (a, 0) to obtain a line parallel to
the x –axis or y-axis respectively. We then sketch the
graph of these given lines as described by their
30
respective equations as follows: MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 ( 0,5)

y=5
4

2
y=5
y =0(the x-axis) -2 -1
-2
(-3,0)

-4

x = -3
-6

Remark
It can be shown that if ax + by + c = 0 represents the same straight line as a 1x +b1y + c1 = 0, then
their corresponding coefficients are proportional, that is, for some, constant k,
a = ka1, b = kb1 and c = kc1
So that k = a/a1 = b/b1 = c/c1

Example 29
Find the value of p and q if px + qy + 7 = 0 represent the same straight line as 3y – 4x + 1 = 0.

31
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Solution
Since the same equation describe the same straight line, then
P = k(3), q = -4(k) and 7 = k(1)
 k = p/3 = q/-4 = 7/1
 p = 3 (7) and q = -4(7)
P = 21 and q = -28
1.12 Acute angle between two lines
Given any two lines AB and CD on a plane having angle 
between then as shown below:
C B

 

D 32
A MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Let line AB and CD make angles  and B with the x-axis respectively. Then, the gradient of AB = tan 
and gradient of CD = tan 
let the gradient of each of these lines AB and CD be represented by m 1 and m2 respectively.
 m1  tan  and m2  tan  ---------(*)
from the triangle in the figure, observe that
    (exterior angle of a triangle)
:.     
By taking the tangent of both sides, we have:
tan   tan 
tan   tan     =
1  tan  tan 
by putting equation (*) into this, we obtain
m2  m1
tan  
1  m2 m1
and by taking  as the acute angle between the
two lines, then

m2  m1 m2  m1
tan      tan 1
1  m2 m1 1  m2 m1
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 33
Example 29
Find the acute angle between the straight lines
y-3x + 7 = 0 and y – 5x – 3 =0
Solution We rewrite the equations in the form y = mx + c so, as to
obtain their gradient m1 and m2 easily, as follows: y = 3x – 7 and
y = 5x + 3
=> m1 = 3 => m2 = 5
If  is the acute angle between the lines,

then   tan 1
m2  m1
1  m2 m1
 tan 1
53
1  5(3)
  16
 
 tan 1 2  tan 1 1  7.13
8

Example 31
A line Passes through point (1,2) and is parallel to line 3y – 2x + 1 = 0,
obtain the equation of this line.
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 34
Solution
These lines are sketched roughly below:
y B
D

1,2
P(x,y) )0) 3y-2x+1=0
)))

A C

Since the two lines are parallel, then they must have the
same slopes that is,
Slope AB = slope CD 0

But from 3y – 2x +1 = 0
then 3y = 2x

y=2 x 1
3 3

 m= 2
3 35
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
By imagining another point p(x,y) on the line AB, then
y2
grad AB =  2
x 1 3
3(y – 2) = 2(x – 1)
3y – 6 = 2x – 2
3y – 2x – 4 = 0
Is the required equation.
Example 32
Find the equation of the line passing point (-1,2) and perpendicular to
the line x + 2y = 3.
Solution
The lines are as roughly sketched below:
B
C
y P(x,y)

x+2y=3
(-1,2)
900

From x +2y
A
= 3, we have 2y = -x + 3 and
D
y=  1 x 2 36
2 3
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
since the two lines are perpendicular, then
m1m2 = -1
m1(-½) = -1

m1 = 1
1
2
m1 = 2 being the grad of the required line. Let point p(x,y) lies on the
line, then
y2
grad AB = =2
x  (1)
y2
=2
x 1
y – 2 = 2(x+1)
y – 2 - 2x – 2 = 0
y – 2x – 4 = 0
is the required equation of the given line.

37
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 33
Show that if the lines l1: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and l2: a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 are parallel, then a1b2 = a2b1 and if they are
perpendicular, then a1a2 + b1b2 = 0
Solution
From line l1: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 we have
b1y = -a1 x – c1
 a1 c1
y x
b1 b1

 m1   a1 is the grad of l1
b1
sfrom line l2 : a2x + b2y + c2 =0 we have
b2y = -a2x –c2
 a2 x  c2
y=
b2 b2

 a2
m 2 
b2 is the grad of line l2.
If the two lines are parallel, then
m1 = m2
a1   a2
that is, -
b1 b2

 a1b2   a2b1
 a1b2  a2b1
38
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 If the two lines are perpendicular, then
m1m2 = -1

that is,  a1   a2  = -1
b1  b2 

a1a2
= -1
b1b2

 a1a 2  -b1b2
therefore a1 a 2  b1b2  0
Example 34

The equation of the two adjacent sides AD and AB of a parallelogram ABCD

are 2x – y + 5 = 0, x+7y+10=0 and the diagonal BD has the equation x + y = 2;

calculate:
(a) The coordinates of the vertices
(b) The acute angle between the diagonals
(c) The area of the parallelogram. 39
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Solution
For good understanding of the problem, the parallelogram and the given sides is as
roughly sketched below:
B C

x+7y+10=0

x+y-2=0

A 2x-y+5=0 D

To find the coordinates of the point of intersection of any two lines, solve the equations of the
lines simultaneously. Thus, for coordinates A we solve equations:
x + 7y = - 10 ----------------(1)
2x – y = -5 ----------------(2)
Simultaneously as follows: 40
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
(1) x 2: 2x + 14y = -20 -----------------(3)
2x – y = -5 ------------------(4)
(3) – (4): 15y = -15
y = -1
by putting this value of y into equation (2), we have:
2x – (-1) = -5
2x = -5-1 = -6
x = -3
Therefore, the coordinates of point A(x,y) = A (-3,-1) for the coordinates of point D we solve
simultaneously equations:
x + 7y = -10 ---------------------(1)
x+y=2 ---------------------(2)
(5) – (6): 6y = 12
 y = -2
by putting this value of y into equation (6), we have:
x + (-2) = 2
x=4
41
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
showing that the coordinates of point B is (4, -2) for coordinates of point 2, we solve
simultaneously, equations:
2x – y = -5 -----------------(7)
2x + 2y = 4 -----------------(8)
(7)-(8): -3y = -9
y = 3
By putting this value of y into equation (8)we obtain
2x -3 =-5
2x = 2  x=1
hence, the coordinates of point D is (-1,3).
Having known the coordinates of point B and D, we can then find the mid point of
line BD using the midpoint formula, from the fig below:
B(4,-2) C(x,y)

M(x,y)

A(-3,-1) D(-1,3) 42
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Observe that point M( x1 , y ) is the midpoint of diagonals BDand AC since the four sided figure is a
parallelogram.
x x y y 
M ( x1 , y1 )  M  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 
 4  1  2  3 
M , 
 2 2 

M ( x1 , y1 )  M 3 , 1
2 2

 x1 = 3/2 and y = ½
By considering diagonal AC that has M as its midpoint we have:

 2 2

M 3 , 1  M
  3  x 1 y 
 2
,
2 


3 x 1 y
3  and 1 
2 2 2 2
 3  3  x and 1  1  y
x6 and y  2.
Therefore the coordinates of point c(x,y) is C(6,2) and the vertices of the parallelogram are
A(-3,-1), B(4,-2), C(6,2) and D(-1,3)

43
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 (b) To find the acute angle between the diagonals we need to know the gradient of the diagonals. For diagonal BD of
equation
x+ y – 2 = 0
y = -x + 2
we have m1 = -1

the gradient m2 of diagonal AC is given by

increase in y y2  y1
m2 = 
increase in x x2  x1
2  (1) 3
i.e m2  
6  (3) 9

m2  1
3

The acute angle between the two diagonals BD and AC of gradients m1 and m2 respectively is given by:

m2  m1
  tan 1
1  m2 m1
 (1)
1
 tan 1 3

1  (1) 13 
11 4
 tan 1  tan 1
3 3

1 3
1 2
3

 tan  3  32
1 4

  tan 1 2
   63.430
44
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 B(4,-2) C(6,2)

A(-3,-1) D(-1,3)

-3 4 6 -1 -3
Area of the parallelogram ABCD = ½
-1 -2 2 3 -1

= ½ 6--4 + 8--12 + 18--2 + 1--9

= ½(10 + 20 + 20 + 10)
= ½ (60)
= 30 square unit

45
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 36
At what angle are the lines whose equations are ax + by + c = 0 and (a – b)x + (a + b)y + d = 0 inclined
to each other?
Solution
The lines can be roughly sketched as follows:
y
C A

ax+by+c=0 (a-b)x+(a+b)y+d=0

B D
B
x
Let the lines be represented by AB and CD respectively and  be the angle between them, obviously, there is
the need to determine the slopes of the lines in order to be able to calculate  , the angle between them, from
line AB , ax + by + c = 0
by = -ax – c

y = a x c
b b

showing that grad AB is given by m1 =  a

b
from line CD , (a-b)x + (a + b)y + d = 0
(a + b)y = -(a – b)x – d

y
a  b  x  d
a  b  a  b  46
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
  a  b 
Showing that grad CD is given by m2 =
a  b 
The angle between the lines is given by

1   a  b   
a   a   a b  
 m2  m1  1 
a b
1 b b
 tan   tan    tan 
a b

1  m m 1    a  a  b
 1  a  a  b 
 2 1   b a b   b a b 

 a a  b   ba  b   b( a  b)  a ( a  b) 
 tan 1   
 b ( a  b )   b( a  b) 
 q a  b   ba  b   b( a  b) 
 tan 1  
  b( a  b)  a ( a  b ) 
 b( a  b)   
 a ( a  b)  b( a  b) 
  tan 1  
 b( a  b)  a ( a  b) 

 a 2  ab  ab  b 2 
  tan  1
2 2 
 ab  b  a  ab 
1  a  b2 
2
  tan  2 2 
a  b 
  tan 1 1
  450 47
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 37
A line through the point (2,7) has a positive gradient and
makes an angle 450 with the line x – 3y + 9 = 0 write the equation of this line.
Solution :
Let the graph of the line representing the lines be roughly sketched as shown below:

y
C p(x,y) B

450 x-3y+9=0

(2,7) D

A
x

CD of equation x – 3y + 9 = 0
3y = x + 9
y = 1/3x + 3
has grad m1 = 1/3
let line AB has grad m2; then the angle between the two lines is given by 48
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 m2  m1
tan  
1  m2 m1
but  450
m2  13
 tan 450 
1  13 m2
m2  13
1
1  13 m2

m2  1 3  1  1 3 m2
m2  1 3 m2  4
3

2
3 m2  4 3
 m2  2
Having found grad of line AB, by assuming another point p(x,y) lying on the line, the equation of the line can be
found as follows:
increase in y
grad AB =
increase in x

y7
that is 2
x2
= y  7  2( x  2)
y  7  2x  4
y  2x  3  0
is the equation of the line.

MTH103 - GEOMETRY 49
The perpendicular distance of a point from a
straight lines
Given a straight line represented by equation ax + by + c
= 0 and suppose that point P(x, y) is a point outside the
line as shown below:

p(x, y)

ax+by+c=0
B

A
Q(x, y)

The perpendicular distance d from point P(x 1, y1) to the

given ax + by + c =0 can be found.
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 50
the perpendicu lar distance d of point P(x, y) from the line ax + by + c = 0
is given as:
ax1  by1  c
d 
a 2  b2
Remark
Observe that the numerator in the r.h.s of this formula,
that is ax + by + c is the general form of the equation of
the line under consideration but with x, y replaced by
x1 , y1 which are the coordinates of the point P( x1 , y1 )
whose perpendicular distance from the line is required.
The denominator of the r.h.s of this formula, that is,

a 2  b 2 is the square root of the coefficients of x and y

in equation of the given line, that is ax + by + c = 0
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 51
Example 39
Find the perpendicular distance of the point P(-3,4) from

the line x  4 y  3  0.
3
Solution :
We rewrite the equation of the as 3x – 4y – 9 = 0
if d stands for the perpendicular distance of the point
P(-3, 4) from this line, then we have.
ax1  by1
d 
a 2  b2
Where a = 3, b = 4 and c = -9 and x1 = -3, y1 = 4
3( 3)  ( 4)( 4)  ( 9)
d 
32  ( 4) 2
 9  16  9
d 
24
34
d   64 units
5 5
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 52
•Example 40
• Find the perpendicular distance between the two
parallel lines 10x + 3y – 6 = 0 and 10x + 3y + 3 = 0
•Solution
•For better understanding of this problem, we sketch
roughly the lines as follow:
y D
10x+3y+3
D

d B

10x+3y-6
(0,2)
C x
x

MTH103 - GEOMETRY 53
The procedure for attempting this kind of problem is by
taking one point on any one of the lines and then find the
perpendicular distance of this point from the other line.
we choose an arbitrary point on line AB of equation:
10x + 3y – 6 = 0
Set x = 0, 10(0) + 3y – 6 = 0
 3y = 6
and y = 2
 point (0, 2) lie on the line AB. If d denotes the
distance between the lines from point (0, 2), then d is
ax1  by1
given by d 
a2  b2
but a = 10, b = 3, c= 3 and x1 = 0, y1 = 2
10(0)  3( 2)  3
d 
10 2  32
11
 d 
109
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 54
 d  1.054 units .
 Exercises
1. Find the distance between the points
(a) A(-2, -3)and B(-5,2)
(c) P(5, 9) and Q(2, 5)
2. Convert point of cartesian coordinates:
(a) P(-5, 5) (b) Q(3, 4) to polar coordinates.
3. Show that triangle with vertices (a) (-2, 8), (0,6) and (-4,2) (b) A( ½ , ½) B(0,1) and C( -½ , -½)
are right angles.
4. Prove that the three points A(5,1) B(6,9) and C(-1,5) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
5. Obtain the equation of the straight line which passes through point (2,3) and form angle 45 0 with
the straight line y – 3x + 5 = 0
6. Find the coordinates of the point Q where the perpendicular from the point p(1,3) to the straight line
2x – 3y = 1 cuts this line. if PQ is produced to a point R such that PQ = QR , find the coordinates
of R.
7. A line through the point (2,7) has a positive gradient and makes an angle 45 0 with the line x – 3y +
9 = 0 write the equation of this line.
8. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (3,2) and through the point of
intersection of the lines 3x – 4y = 6, 2x + 3y = 1.

55
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
8. A straight line joins the origin to the point
(18,24). Find the equation of the line parallel to it
through the point (25,0) and also the equation of
the line through (18,24) perpendicular to these
two lines.
9. A perpendicular is drawn from point p(1,2) to the
line with equation 3x + 4y – 12 =0 and meets the
lines at Q, find the coordinates of this point Q, the
foot of the perpendicular from p(1,2) to the given
line.
10. Find the perpendicular distance of ( -2, 3 )
from the line 4x – 3y = 8.
11. Find the distances of the origin and the point
( 4,5 ) from theMTH103
line - 3x + 4y = 10.
GEOMETRY 56
 COORDINATE GEOMETRY OF THE CIRCLE
The path traced out by a point which moves on a plane
under some certain conditions and restrictions is called locus.
The locus of a point which moves on a plane such that it is
equidistance from a fixed point on the plane is a circle.
A

r
O N

Fig 5.1

The fixed point O is the centre of the circle and the

constant distance from the fixed point is its radius.
ON  AO  OB = radius r and the diameter of the circle 57
is given by D = 2 radius; MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 that is, Diameter = AB
Given a circle with centre at the origin as shown below:
Let there be a point P(x, y) on the edge of the circle, then,
OP is radius r of the circle. By dropping a perpendicular from
point P to Ox at N, we have a right-angle triangle OPN so
formed.

y
P(x, y)

r
y

O(0,0) x N x

B
Fig 5.2
58
Then, from the coordinates of point P(x, y), MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 ON = x
and PN = y
By applying the Pythagoras Theorem in OPN, we have
2 2 2
ON  NP  OP
i.e. x2 + y2 = r2 … (1)
This is the equation of the circle with its centre at the origin
having radius r. This is the simplest form that equation of a
circle can be written.
For example, a circle radius 5cm with centre at the origin
has x2 + y2 = 52 or x2 + y2 = 25 as its equation.

5.1 THE GENERAL FORM OF THE EQUATION OF

THE CIRCLE
In general, the equation of circle having its centre
different from the origin can be written. That is, given a circle
with its centre at point C (h, k), radius r, as shown in the
Figure 5.3 below: 59
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 y
P(x, y)

r
y
C(h,k) x N M

x
Fig 5.3

Let a point P(x, y) lie on the circumference of the circle.

By dropping a perpendicular from this point to CM at N, we
obtain a right-angle triangle CPN with
CN  x  h
and PN  y  k
By applying Pythagoras Theorem in triangle CPN, we obtain
2 2 2
CN  PN  CP
i.e. x  h    y  k   r 2
2 2
 (2)
This is the equation of the circle radius r, whose centre is
C (h, k). 60
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 For example, a circle centre (2, 3) radius 4 units has
equation
(x – 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 42
or (x – 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 16
By expanding (2), we have:
x2 – 2xh + h2 + y2 – 2yk + k2 = r2
x2 + y2 – 2xh – 2yk + h2+ k2 = r2
x2 + y2 – 2xh – 2yk + h2 + k2 – r2 = 0
By putting g = –h, f = –k and c = h2 + k2 – r2 in the above
equation, we have:
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 … (3)
This is the general form of the equation of a circle with centre
different from the origin. The equation of a circle is mostly and
usually written in the form of equation (3). Note from here
that:
(i) the coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal,
(ii) there can be no term in the product xy and the other
terms in the equation apart from terms x2 and y2 are
61
linear. MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.1
Given a circle with centre at point (3, 4) and radius 7
units, find the equation of the circle.

Solution
The circle is drawn as shown in Figure 5.4 as follows:

y
P(x, y)

(3, 4) N

x
Fig 5.4

Let there be a point P(x, y) on the circumference of the circle.

By dropping a perpendicular from point P to the horizontal line
at N, a right-angle triangle is formed. By Pythagoras Theorem,
(x – 3)2 + (y – 4)2 = 72
x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 8y + 16 – 49 = 0
x2 + y2 – 6x – 8y – 24 = 0 62
This is the required equation of the circle. MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.2
Find the equation of the circle which passes through point
(3, 4) having centre at point (–2, 3).

Solution
We sketch the circle roughly as shown in Figure 5.5. By
dropping a perpendicular from P to the horizontal line at N, a
right-angle triangle CPN is formed, where
CN  3   2   5
and PN  4  3  1
P(3, 4)

C(–2,3) N

Fig 5.5

63
By Pythagoras Theorem, MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 2 2 2
CP  CN  PN
 52  12
 26
This is the radius of the circle. Our task reduces to finding the
equation of a circle with centre C (–2, 3) and radius 26 .
Using (2): (x – h) 2 + (y – k) 2 = r2, we have
2
[x – (–2)] + (y – 3) =2
 26 2

(x + 2) 2 + (y – 3)2 = 26
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y2 – 6y + 9 – 26 = 0
x 2 + y2 + 4x – 6y – 13 = 0
This is the required equation of the given circle.

5.2 FINDING THE COORDINATES OF THE CENTRE

OF A CIRCLE AND THE LENGTH OF ITS
RADIUS FROM ITS EQUATION
Given a circle whose equation is
x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
We can find the coordinates of its centre and the length of its
radius as follows:
64
By rearranging the equation, we have: MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 x 2 + 2gx + y2 + 2fy + c = 0
By completing the square of x2 + 2gx and y2 + 2fy, we have
x 2 + 2gx+ [½ (2g)]2 + y2 + 2fy + [½ (2f)]2 = – c + g2 + f 2
x 2 + 2gx +g2 + y2 + 2fy + f 2 = – c + g2 + f 2
(x + g)2 + (y + f)2 = – c + g2 + f 2
This resembles equation (2)
i.e. (x – h) 2 + (y – k) 2 = r2.
if we re-write it as:
2
[x – (–g)] + [y – (–f)] = 2
g  f c  2 2

2

where it is observed that the centre of the circle is (– g, – f) and

its radius is g2  f 2
c .

Example 5.3
Find the coordinates of the centre and the length of the
radius of circle x 2 + y2 – 4x – 6y – 9 = 0

Solution
By rearranging the equation, we have:
x 2 + y2 – 4x – 6y = 9
By completing the square of each expression, we have:
x 2 – 4x +[½(–4)]2 + y2– 6y + [ ½(–6)]2 = 9 + 4 + 9
 x 2 – 4x +(–2)2 + y2– 6y + (–3)]2 = 22
(x – 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 22  
2

Hence, the coordinates of the centre of the circle is (2, 3) radius

65
22 units. MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.4
Show that 5x 2 + 5y2 – 10x + 6y – 1 = 0 represents a
circle. Hence, obtain the coordinates of its centre and length of
its radius.

Solution
5x 2 + 5y2 – 10x + 6y – 1 = 0
In this equation, the coefficient of x2 and y2 are the same. No
term in xy is present in it and the other terms in the equation
are linear, apart from terms x2 and y2. Hence, the equation is
that of a circle.
By dividing through the equation by 5, we obtain:
x 2 + y2 – 2x + 65 y – 15 = 0
By rearranging the terms, we have
x 2 – 2x + y2 + 65 y = 15
We then complete the square of each expression as follows:
x 2 – 2x + [½ (–2)]2 + y2 + 65 y + [½( 65 )]2 = 15 + 1 + 25
9

 x – 2x + (–1)2 + y2 + 6
5
y +   3
5
2
= 39
25

y   =  
2 2
2
(x – 1) + 3
5
39
25

(x – 1) +2
y   53 2 =  39
25
 2

Hence, the circle is of centre (1,  3

5
) and the length of its
66
radius 39
25 units. MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.5
Obtain the equation of the circle through three points (3, 2),
(1, 1) and (1, 0).

Solution
We sketch the circle roughly as shown in Figure 5.8
below
A (3, 2)

K(–g,– f)
C (1,1) B (1, 0)

Fig 5.8
If point A (3, 2) be on the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
and the equation is satisfied by this coordinates, we obtain:
32 + 22 + 2(3)g + 2(2)f + c = 0
i.e. 6g + 4f + c = – 13 … (1)
Similarly, point B (1, 1) lies on the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 to give
12 + 12 + 2(1) g + 2(1) f + c = 0 67
2g + 2f + c = –2 … (2)- GEOMETRY
MTH103
 For point (1, 0) that lies on the same circle, we obtain
equation (3)
12 + 02 + 2(1) g + 2(0) f + c = 0
2g + c = – 1 … (3)
We then solve the three equations simultaneously as follows:
By putting (3) into (2), we obtain:
2f – 1 = – 2
2f = – 1
f=–½
By putting the value of f into (1), we obtain
6g + 4(–½) + c = – 13
 6g + c = – 11 … (4)
And equation (4) – (3): 4g = – 10
5
g= 
2
By putting the values of g and f into (2), we obtain:
2 52  + 2(–½) + c = – 2
c=–2+5+1
 c=4
By putting the values of constants g, f and c into the general
form of the equation of the circle, x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
we obtain:
x2 + y2 + 2 52  x + 2(–½)y + 4 = 0 68
2 2
i.e. x + y + 5x – y + 4 = 0 MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.6
Obtain the equation of the circle circumscribing a triangle
with vertices A (–1, 2), B (0, 4) and C (3, 5).

Solution
We sketch the figure roughly as shown in Figure 5.9 below.

Point A(–1, 2) lie on the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,

we obtain:
(–1)2 + 22 + 2g (–1) + 2f (2) + c = 0
5 – 2g + 4f + c = 0
–2g + 4f + c = – 5 … (1)

B (0, 4)

K(–g,– f)
A (–1, 2)
C (3, 5)
Fig 5.9
Since point B (0, 4) lie on the circle, we obtain 69
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 + 42 + 2g (0) + 2f (4) + c = 0
8f + c = – 16 … (2)
Point C (3, 5) lie on the circle, hence, we obtain
32 + 52 + 2g (3) + 2f (5) + c = 0
6g + 10f + c = – 34 … (3)
Our task reduces to solving equation (1), (2) and (3)
simultaneously. By putting (2) into (3) we obtain
6g + (8f + c) + 2f = – 34
i.e. 6g + (–16) + 2f = – 18 … (4)
We take (3) – (1): 8g + 6f = – 29 … (5)
3 × (4): 18g + 6f = – 54 … (6)
(6) – (5): 10g = – 25
25
g  
10
By putting the value of g into (5), we obtain:
 25 
8    6 f  29
 10 
100
6 f  29 
5
9 3
f   
6 2 70
By putting the values of g and f into (1), we obtain MTH103 - GEOMETRY
  25   3 
 2    4    c  5
 10   2 
5–6+c=–5
 c=–4
We then put the values of g, f and c into the general equation
2 2
of a circle x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 to obtain
 25   3
x  y  2   x  2   y   4   0
2 2

 10   2
x2 + y2 – 5x – 3y – 4 = 0
This is the required equation of the given circle.
2. Equation of a Circle having points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2
as the ends of its Diameter
Given a circle having point A(x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) as the end
of its diameter, we can write the equation of the circle b
assuming another point P(x, y) on the circumference of thi
circle as shown in Figure 5.10 below: 71
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 By joining points A and P, and then join points P and B,
we obtain a right-angle triangle APB with angle APB being a
right angle (angle on a semicircle).

P (x, y)

A (x1, y1) B (x2, y2)

Fig 5.10
 AP is perpendicular to PB
Then, if AP is of grad m1 and PB is of grad m2, then
72
m1m2 = – 1 (grads of perpendicular lines)
 y  y1
But grad AP = m1 =
x  x1
y  y2
and grad PB = m2 =
x  x2
 y  y1  y  y2
    1
 x  x1  x  x2
and (y – y1) (y – y2) = – (x – x1) (x – x2)
 (y – y1) (y – y2) + (x – x1) (x – x2) = 0
This is the required equation of a circle having points A(x1, y1)
and B(x2, y2) as the ends of its diameter.

Example 5.7
Write the equation of the circle having points (2, 3) and
(–1, 5) as ends of its diameter.

Solution
We sketch the figure representing the circle roughly 73
as
shown in Figure 5.11 below: MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 shown in Figure 5.11 below:
P (x, y)

A (2, 3) B (–1, 5)

Fig 5.11

by assuming another point (P(x, y) on the circumference of the

circle, observe that APB is a right-angle triangle (angle on a
semi-circle). Therefore, AP is perpendicular to PB and
m1m2 = – 1 (m1 being the grad of AP and m2 the grad of
PB ).
y2
but m1 
x3
y 5 y 5
and m2  
x   1 x 1 74
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
  y  2  y  5 
     1
 x  3  x  1 
(y – 2)(y – 5) = – (x – 3)(x + 1) = 0
y2 – 5y – 2y + 10 + x2 + x – 3x – 3 = 0
y2 – 7y + 10 + x2 – 2x – 3 = 0
x2 + y2 – 2x – 7y + 7 = 0
This is the required equation of the given circle.
5.6 THE POINTS OF INTERSECTION OF THE
STRAIGHT LINE WITH A CIRCLE
Given that a straight line y = mx + c intersects a circle
x2 + y2 = r2 with the centre at the origin (0, 0) which is chosen
for convenience. The coordinates of the points of intersection
of the circle with the line will satisfy the equations of the line
and the circle simultaneously:
y = mx + c … (1)
x2 + y2 = r2 … (2)
by putting (1) into (2), we have
x2 + (mx + c)2 = r2
x2 + m2x2 + 2mxc + c2 = r2
x2 + m2x2 + 2mxc + c2 – r2 = 0 75
2 2 2 2
(1 + m )x + 2mxc + c – r = 0 … (5)
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 2
This is a quadratic equation in x with a = 1 + m , b = 2mc and
2 2
c = c – r . The equation has real coincident or complex roots
2
according to whether the discriminant D = b – 4ac of this
quadratic equation, that is
2
D = b – 4ac
2 2 2 2
= (2mc) – 4(1+ m ) (c – r )
2 2 2 2 2 2 22
= 4m c – 4c + 4r – 4m c + 4m r
22 2 2
= 4m r + 4r – 4c
2 2 2
D = 4[r (1 + m ) – c ]
is positive, zero or negative respectively. That is, according as
2 2 2
c is less than, equal to or greater than r (1 + m ). 76
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 5.16
Find the point of intersection of the line y + x – 3 = 0 and
the circle x2 + y2 + x – 5y + 4 = 0

Solution
We solve the two equations simultaneously as follows:
y+x=3 … (1)
x2 + y2 + x – 5y + 4 = 0 … (2)
From (1), y=3–x … (3)
by putting this into (2), we have
x2 + (3 – x)2 + x – 5(3 – x) + 4 = 0
x2 + 9 – 6x + x2 + x –15 + 5x + 4 = 0
2x2 – 2 = 0
2x2 = 2
 x=1
By putting the values of x into (3), we obtain
y = 3 – (1)
 y = 4 or 2
Hence, the points of intersection of the line with the given 77
circle is (1, 2) and (–1, 4). MTH103 - GEOMETRY
5.4 THE EQUATION TO A CIRCLE AT A GIVEN
POINT ON THE CIRCLE
Given a circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with a tangent
to this circle at point A(x1, y1) on the circle as shown below:
K
A (x1, y1)

Fig 5.13

Line AK passing through point A(x1, y1) is the tangent to the

given circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
We differentiate this equation with respect to x to obtain
dy dy
2x  2 y  2g  2 f  0
dx dx
dy dy
2y 2f  2 x  2 g
dx dx
dy
2 y  f  2- GEOMETRY
MTH103 x  g 78
dx
 dy  2 x  g 
 
dx 2  y  f 
dy  x  g 
i.e. 
dx y  f 

Then, the gradient of the tangent to the circle at point

A(x1, y1) is
m
dy
 1
x  g 
dx  y1  f 
Our task now reduces to finding the equation of the tangent
AK  to the circle passing through point A(x1, y1). By
assuming that another point P(x, y) lie on the tangent, then
increase in y
grad AK 
increase in x
 x1  g  y  y1
i.e. 
 y1  f  x  x1 MTH103 - GEOMETRY 79
By cross-multiplying, we obtain
 x1  g 
y  y1   x  x1 
 y1  f 
(y – y1) (y1 + f) = – (x1 + g) (x – x1)
yy1 + f y– y12 – f y1 = – xx1 + x12 – gx + gx1
xx1 + yy1 + gx – gx1 + fy – fy1 = x12 + y12
xx1 + yy1 + g(x – x1) + f(y – y1) = x12 + y12 … (1)
Since point A(x1, y1) lies on the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Then, the point satisfy the equation of this circle so that we
obtain
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0
i.e. x12 + y12 = – (2gx1 + 2fy1 + c)
By putting this value into equation (1), we obtain:
xx1 + yy1 + g(x – x1) + f(y – y1) = – (2gx1 + 2fy1 + c)
xx1 + yy1 + gx – gx1 + fy – fy1 = – 2gx1 – 2fy1 – c
xx1 + yy1 + gx – gx1 + fy – fy1 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0
xx1 + yy1 + gx + gx1 + fy +MTH103
fy1 + c=0
- GEOMETRY 80
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0 … (2)
 Equation (2) is the required equation of the tangent at
point A(x1, y1) to the given circle. Observe that this equation of
the tangent can be obtained easily from the general equation of
the circle (x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0) by replacing x2 with xx1,
y2 with yy1, 2x with (x + x1) and 2y with (y + y1) in a particular
case of a general rule which enables the equation of the tangent
to a circle to be written down offhand or at mere sight.
Example 5.9
What is the equation of the tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 – 8x + 2y – 3 = 0 at point (2, 3)?

Solution
This problem can be approached from the first principle
as follow
K
P(x, y)
A (2, 3)

Fig 5.14

MTH103 - GEOMETRY 81
AK is the tangent at point A(2, 3) to the circle:
x2 + y2 – 8x + 2y – 3 = 0
by differentiating this equation with respect to x we have:
dy dy
2x  2 y 2 8  0
dx dx
dy
2 y  1  2 x  8
dx
dy  2x  4 

dx 2  y  1
 x  4
 ... (1)
y 1
Hence, the tangent to the circle at point (2, 3) (line AK ) has
gradient :
dy  2  4  1
m  
dx 3 1 2
To find the equation of the tangent (line AK ) to the circle at
point (2, 3), we assume another point P(x, y) lies on the circle
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 82
as shown in the figure below:
 increase in y
 grad AK 
increase in x
1 y 3
i.e. 
2 x2
2(y – 3) = (x – 2)
2y – 6 = x – 2
2y – x – 4 = 0
This is the required equation of the tangent to the given circle
at point (2, 3).

Example 5.10
The line 4y = 3x is parallel to the diameter PQ of the
circle x2 + y2 + 6x – 8y = 0. Write the equations of the
tangents to the circle at P and Q.

Solution
We sketch the figure representing the phenomenon as
follows:
B A

5units
P(x, y) Q (x2, y2)
C(–3, 4)

R(x, y)
R S
MTH103
Fig - GEOMETRY
5.15 83
Line PQ is parallel to RS
 grad of PQ = grad of RS
Line RS : 4y = 3x
y = ¾x
 grad m1 of line RS = ¾
The coordinates of the centre of the circle is as found below:
x2 + y2 + 6x – 8y = 0
x2 + 6x + 32 + y2 – 8y + (–4)2 = 9 + 16
(x + 3)2 + (y – 4)2 = 52
 (–3, 4) is the coordinates of its centre and it is of radius 5
units.
Sine line AQ and BP are the tangents to the circle, then AQ
is perpendicular to QP . So also, BP is perpendicular to QP .
 m1m2 = – 1
3
m1 
  =–1
4
4
m1 = 
3
This means that line AQ and BP is of gradient  4 each. Let
3
Q be of coordinates (x2, y2) and P be of coordinates (x, y)
respectively. Then, by distance formula we have,
CQ  x2   3   y2  4 
2 2

52 = [x2 – (–3)]2 + (y2 – 4)2

25 = (x2 + 3)2 + (yMTH103
2 – 4)
2
- GEOMETRY 84
 (x2, y2) = (0, 8) by inspection.
Similarly,
CP  x1   3   y1  4 
2 2

52 = [x1 – (–3)]2 + (y1 – 4)2

25 = (x1 + 3)2 + (y1 – 4)2
 (x1, y1) = (2, 4) by inspection.
By assuming that another point P(x, y) lies on the line BP , then
increase in y
grad BP 
increase in x
4 y4
i.e.  
3 x2
3(y – 4) = – 4(x – 2)
3y – 12 = – 4x + 8
3y + 4x – 20 = 0
This is the required equation of the tangent to the circle at
point P.
By assuming that another point R(x, y) lies on the line AQ ,
then
increase in y
grad AQ 
increase in x
4 y 8
i.e.  
3 x0
3(y – 8) = – 4(x – 0)
3y – 24 = – 4x
3y + 4x – 24 = 0
This is the required equation of - the
MTH103 tangent to the circle at
GEOMETRY 85
Example 5.11
Find the equation of the tangent at point (1, 0) on the
circle x2 + y2 + 3x – 3y – 13
2
= 0

Solution
From the first principle,

(1, 0) P(x, y)

Fig 5.16
From x2 + y2 + 3x – 3y – 13
2
= 0
By differentiating this equation with respect to x, we have
dy dy
2x  2 y 33  0
dx dx
dy dy
2y 3  2 x  3
dx dx
2 y  3 dy  2 x  3
dx
dy  2x  3

dx 2y  3
Hence, the gradient of the tangent to the circle at point (1, 0) is
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 86
By assuming that another point P(x, y) lie on the tangent to the
circle, we have
increase in y
gradient 
increase in x
5 y0

3 x 1
3y = 5(x – 1)
3y = 5x – 5
Therefore, 3y – 5x + 5 = 0
This is the required equation of the given circle.

5.5 THE LENGTH OF THE TANGENT FROM A

POINT OUTSIDE THE CIRCLE

Given a circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with the tangent

TP joining point T on the point of contact of the tangent with
the circle and another point P(x, y) which is outside the circle
as shown below: MTH103 - GEOMETRY 87
 T
P(x, y)

C(–g, –f)

Fig 5.17
The centre of the circle is C (– g, – f), radius r  g 2  f 2  c
as obtained in section (5.2). By joining point P to C and point
C to T, observe that a right-angle triangle TCP is formed. Since
CT is perpendicular to TP (tangent to a circle), from right-
angle triangle TCP MTH103 - GEOMETRY 88
 2 2 2
PC  CT  PT
2 2 2
PT  PC  CT ... (1)
2
But PC = [x – (–g)] 2 + [y – (–f)] 2 (by distance formula)
2
PC = (x +g) 2 + (y + f) 2 … (2)
and CT = radius r of the circle = g2  f 2  c
 CT 
2
g 2 2
 f c 
2

2
 CT  g 2  f 2  c ... (3)
By putting (2) and (3) into (1), we obtain
2
PT = [(x + g)2 + (y + f)2] – (g2 + f 2 – c)
= (x2 + 2xg + g2 + y2 + 2yf + f 2) – (g2 + f 2 – c)
= x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
 PT  x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c ... (4)
This is the length of the tangent to the circle.
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 89
 Observe that the length of the tangent to the circle from
point P(x, y) outside the circle is obtained by putting the
coordinates (x, y) of the given point in the left hand side of the
general equation x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 of the circle and
find its square root. Note that if the length of the tangent PT
has a negative value, it indicates that point P is inside the
circle. For the length of the tangent to a circle from a point
P(x1, y1) outside the circle, we have
2 2
PT  x1  y  2 gx1  2 fy1  c as the required length
1
of the tangent to the circle from point P(x1, y1) outside the
circle.

Example 5.12
Find the length of the tangent from point (5, –2) to the
circle x2 + y2 + 2x – 3y = 0.MTH103 - GEOMETRY 90
Solution
By comparing x2 + y2 + 2x – 3y = 0 with x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
observe that 2g = 2,  g = 1, 2f = – 3,  f =  32 and c = 0
Using (4) PT  x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c
where x = 5, y = – 2, we have
 3
PT  5   2  215  2   2  0
2 2

 2
 25  4  10  6
 45units
This is the required length of the tangent to the given circle
from a given point outside it.

Example 5.13
The length of the tangent from the point (3, 2) to the
circle x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y + kMTH103
= 0 -isGEOMETRY
9units. Find the value of K. 91
Solution
By comparing x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y + k = 0 with the general form
of equation of circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, observe that
2g = –2,  g = –1, 2f = – 3,  f =  32 and c = k
By using (4) PT  x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c
where x = 3, y = 2, we have:
 3
PT  3  2  2 13  2  2   k  9
2 2

 2
 9466k  9
k 1  9
By squaring both sides, we have
k + 1 = 92
k + 1 = 81
 k = 80
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 92
LENGTH OF TANGENTS FROM AN EXTERNAL
POINT TO A CIRCLE
Given a circle S whose equation is given by
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with centres (–g, –f) and radius
given by r  g 2  f 2  c . Let P (x1, y1) be any point outside
the circle S as shown in Figure 5.23 below:

Q1

r S

P(x1, y1)
C(–g, –f)

Fig 5.23 Q2
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 93
 Let points Q1 and Q2 be the points of contact of the
tangents drawn from point P (x1, y1) to the circle S. our interest
is to find the lengths PQ1 and PQ2 of the line segments PQ1
and PQ2. Observe that triangle PQ1C is a right-angle triangle;
so also is the triangle PQ2C. Hence, by Pythagoras theorem,
2 2 2
PQ1  PQ2  PC  r 2
 
 x1   g   y1   f   r 2
2 2

= [(x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f)2 – r2

= x1 + 2gx1 + g2 + y12 + 2fy1 + f 2 – r2
= x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 – (g2 + f 2 – c)
2 2
PQ1  PQ2  x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c
and PQ1  PQ2  x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c
Hence, the length of the tangent from a point (x1, y1) to a circle
is obtained by the substitution of the coordinates of the point in
the equation of the circle and takes its square roots provided
that the coefficients of x2 and y2 in the equation of the circle
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 94
have been made unity.
NORMAL TO A CIRCLE AT A POINT ON THE
CIRCLE
The normal to a circle at a point P (x1, y1) on the circle is
the line perpendicular to the tangent to the circle at P (x1, y1).
Given a circle S having equation x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
with the point P (x1, y1) on S, by knowledge of tangent to a
circle, it is known that the tangent is perpendicular to the radial
line form that point. Hence, the normal to the circle at any
point is an extension of the radial line to the point. This is as
shown in the figure below.

P1(x1, y1)

Tangent to the
circle at point
P1(x1, y1) C(–g, –f)

Radial line PQ
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 95
Fig 5.24
 The centre of the circle S is C (–g, –f) on that the slope of
the radial line from point P (x1, y1) is given as
y1   f  y1  f
m 
x1   g  x1  g
By assuming another point Q (x, y) on the radial line (the
normal to the circle S at point P (x1, y1)), we have the gradient
of this line given by:
y  y1
grad PQ 
x  x1
y1  f
but grad PQ  m 
x1  g
y  y1 y  f
Threfore,  1
x  x1 x1  g
 (y – y1) (x1 + g) = (x – x1)(y1 + f)
by multiplying out we have :
yx1+ yg – y1x1 – y1g = xy1 + xf – x1y1 – x1f
(y1 + f)x – (x1 + g)y + gy1 – fx1 = 0
This is the equation of the normal to the circle S at point
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 96
P (x1, y1) on the circle.
Example 5.20
Find the equation of the normal to the circle
x2 + y2 + 6x – 4y + 8 = 0 at the point (1, –2).

Solution
We need to know the coordinates of the centre of the
circle x2 + y2 + 6x – 4y + 8 = 0
By completing the square in it, we have
x2 + 6x + 32 + y2 – 4y + (–2)2 = –8 + 9 + 4
(x + 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
Hence, it is of centre (–3, 2).
The normal to this circle at point (1, –2) is the line
passing through the two points (–3, 2) and (1, –2) whose slope
is given by
2   2  4
m   1
 3 1 4
By assuming another point P(x, y) on this line, we have
y   2 
 1
x 1
y + 2 = – 1(x – 1)
y + 2 = – x + 1)
 y+x+1=0
This is the required equation of the normal to the circle at point
(1, –2).
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 97
 Class Work
1. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the
following circles:
2 2
(a) x + y – 4x – 12y + 4 = 0
2 2
(b) 3x + 3y – 6x + 9y – 1 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y + 12 = 0
2 2
(d) x + y + 6y – 16 = 0
2. The line joining points (–1, 7) and (23, 17) is taken as the
diameter of a circle. Find the equation of this circle, the
length of its radius and the coordinates of its centre.
2 2
3. Does the equation 5x + 5y – 10x + 6y + 25 = 0 represent
a circle? Justify your answer.
4. A circle circumscribes a triangle of vertices (2, 6), (–2, 2)
and (4, –2), obtain the equation of this circle. 98
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
5. Find the point(s) of intersection of the line 3x – y + 5
and circle x2 + y2 = 25

6. A circle has points (2, –1) and (0, –1) as the ends of its
diameter; write the equation of this circle.

7. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 +

4x – 10y – 12 = 0 at point (3, 1).
8. Find the equation of the normal to the circle:
(a) x2 + y2 = 16 at (–4, 0) and (b) x2 + y2 – 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
at (0, 5).
9. Write the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 +
10x – 12y + 11= 0 at the point (2, 7).
10. Obtain the equations of the tangents through (–2, 11) to
the circle x2 + y2 = 25. Find the length of this tangent.
11. Prove that the line lx + my + n = 0 is a tangent to the
circle x2 + y2 = a2 if a2 (l2 + m2) = n2. 99
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 CONIC SECTIONS
Conic sections are geometric figures obtained by intersecting a double-napped right circular cone with a plane,
and this is where it derived its name. Depending on how the plane cuts the cone, the intersection forms a curve
called a parabola, an ellipse, or an hyperbola as in Figure 6.1 below:

(a) Parabola (b) Ellipse (c) Hyperbola

Fig 6.1

If as in Figure 6.1 (a), the plane does not cut across one entire nappe and does not intersect both nappes, the curve of
intersection is a parabola. If as in Figure 6.1 (b) above, the plane cuts entirely across one nappe of the cone100
and
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
is not perpendicular to the axis, then the curve of intersection is called an ellipse. On the other hand, if the plane
cuts through both nappes of the cone as in Figure 6.1 (c) above, then the resulting figure is an hyperbola.
Our definitions of these three conic sections will be given in terms of points, lines and distances, rather than
in terms of planes and cones. From the definition of each of them, the equations of the conic sections will be
derived to be of the form: ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey + f = 0 where the coefficients/parameters a, b, c, d, e, and f are
real numbers with at least one of a, b and c non-zero.

Line
Two
Point intersecting
lines

(a) Parabola (b) Ellipse (c) Hyperbola

Fig 6.2
101
By changing the position of the plane and the shape of the cone, conics can be made to vary considerably so that
 we can obtain what is called degenerate conics. If plane
intersects the cone only at the vertex, then the conic consists of
one point. If the axis of the cone lies on the plane, then a pair
of intersecting lines is obtained and if by beginning with
parabolic case, as in Figure 6.1 (a) above and move the plane
parallel to its initial position until it coincides with one of the
generators of the cone, a line results. This is as shown
respectively in Figure 6.2 (a), (b) and (c) above.
We have considered the geometry of the above cases
before; hence we shall not do that here. Conic sections are
important tools for present day investigations in outer space
and for the study of the behaviour of atomic particles. It is
known and can be proved that if a mass moves under the
influence of what is called an inverse square force field (e.g.
gravitational and electromagnetic fields, orbits) then its path
may be described by means of conic sections.

6.1 THE PARABOLA

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equi distant
from a fixed point F (the focus) and a fixed line l (the directrix)
in the plane. It is assumed that the fixed point F, the focus is
not on the directrix l, otherwise, the parabola degenerates into a
line. If point P(x, y) is any point in the plane and P’ is the point
on directrix l determined by a line through P which is
perpendicular to l, then by definition of parabola, P(x, y) is on
the parabola if
PF  PP  102
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
This is shown in Figure 6.3 below.
Point P(x, y) can lie on any point on the curve called parabola in so far as condition in
equation (1) is satisfied. The line through focus F perpendicular to the directrix is called the
axis of the parabola. The point V on the axis, half-way from F to l is called the vertex of the
parabola.
P P(x, y)

Axis of
y-axis V F
parabola

x-axis
Directrix l Fig 6.3

To obtain a simple equation for a parabola, we choose the y-axis along the axis of the
parabola with origin at the vertex V of the parabola meaning that the x-axis passes through point
V so that F has coordinates (0, p) for some real number p ≠ 0 and the equation of the directrix is
y = – p, this is as shown in Figure 6.4 below.
103
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 .
y

P(x, y)
F (0, p)

x
V
Directrix y = – p P (x, –p)

Fig 6.4

Point P(x, y) is on the parabola, by definition, if PF  PP  ; by distance formula, we have

 x  x   y   p 
x  02   y  p 2 2 2

By squaring both sides and simplifying, we have

x2 + (y – p)2 = 02 + (y + p)2
x2 + y2 – 2yp + p2 = y2 + 2yp + p2
 x2 = 4py … (2)
This is the standard form for the equation of a parabola with focus at F (0, p) and directrix y = – p.
If p > 0, the parabola opens upward as in Figure 6.4; where as, if p < 0, the parabola opens
downward. On the other hand, if the axis of the parabola is taken along the x-axis for vertex V (0, 0),
the focus F (p, 0) and the directrix has equation x = – p as in Figure 6.5 below.
104
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 vertex V (0, 0), the focus F (p, 0) and the directrix has equation x = – p as in Figure 6.5 below.
y

P (–p, y)
P(x, y)

x
F (p, 0)

Fig 6.5
Directrix x = – p

Obviously, by definition, PF  PP  and by using the same type of argument, we obtain

y2 = 4px … (3)
as the standard form of the equation of the parabola for p > 0. On the other hand, if p < 0, the parabola
opens to the left.

Example 6.1
Find the equation of the parabola that has vertex at the origin that opens upward and that passes
through P (–5, 9).

Solution
For understanding of this problem, we sketch a figure to represent it using point V (0, 0) with the
parabola passing through point P (–5, 9) as follows:
105
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 y
:
P (–5, 9)
9

3
P(0,0.69)
x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
Directrix l
y = – 0.69
Fig 6.6

The equation of parabola of this form is given in equation (3), that is x2 = 4py. But point P is of
coordinate (–5, 9) and it is on the parabola, hence it is a solution of the equation, that is
(–5)2 = 4p (9)
25 = 36p
25
 p=
36
The focus of the parabola is then given by
F(0, p) = F(0, 3625
) = F(0, 0.69)
The diretrix l is of equation y = –p
i.e. y = –0.69
By putting the value of p into x2 = 4py, we have
x2 = 4 ( 36
25
)y
9 2
9x2 = 25y or y = x This is the required equation of the parabola.
25 . 106
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 6.2
Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola having equation y2 = – 8x and sketch the graph of the parabola.

Solution
The equation of the parabola conform to the standard form y2 = 4px
By comparing this with y2 = – 8x, observe that
4p = – 8
and p = –2
Therefore, the focus of the parabola is given by
F(p, 0) = P(–2, 0)
and the equation of the directrix is given by
x = –p, i.e. x = – (–2)
 x=2
Since p > 0, the parabola opens to the right, hence, the graph of the parabola is as sketched in Figure 6.7 below.
Generally, note that the graph we have discussed is symmetric to the one of the coordinate axes, for example, the
graph of y2 = 4px is symmetric with respect to the x-axis. Since the equation is unchanged when y is replaced by –y,
likewise the graph of x2 = 4py is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
y

–4 F(–2,0) 0 2 4 x

Directrix x = 2
107
2
Fig 6.7: Graph of Parabola y = – 8x MTH103 - GEOMETRY
The Equation of a Parabola with Vertex different from the Origin
Our work on parabola can be extended to a case where the vertex is not at the origin. Suppose the
vertex V is of coordinate (h, k) and the axis of the parabola is parallel to one of the coordinate axes and the
focus of the parabola is taken as F (h, k + p) and the directrix is y = k – p resulting to Figure 6.8 below:
y

P(x, y)
F(h, k + p)

V (h, k)

Directrix y = k – p P (x, k–p)

x
Fig 6.8
Point P (x, y) is on the parabola if and only if PF  PP 
i.e. x  h   y  k  p   x  x   y  k  p 
2 2 2 2

by squaring both sides, we have

x2 – 2xh + h2 + y2 – 2y(k + p) + (k + p)2 = y2 – 2y(k – p) + (k – p)2
x2 – 2xh + h2 + y2 – 2yk –2yp + k2 + 2 kp + p2 = y2 – 2yk + 2yp + k2 – 2kp + p2
x2 – 2xh + h2 – 2yp + 2kp – 2yp + 2kp = 0
x2 – 2xh + h2 – 4yp + 4kp = 0
(x – h)2 = 4yp – 4kp
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k) … (4)
108
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 This is the standard equation of the given parabola. It should be noted that the standard equation displays
the vertex (h, k) of the parabola. By squaring the LHS and simplifying it leads to an equation of the form:
y= ax2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are real constants.
If the axis of the parabola is parallel to the y-axis, the equation becomes
(x – k)2 = 4p(y – h) … (5)
Equation (4) can be written in the form
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h) … (6)
whereas, before, the vertex is (h, k)
This parabola opens to the right or left as p is positive or negative respectively.

Example 6.3
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (5, –2) with axis parallel to y-axis and which passes through
the origin.

Solution
The equation of the parabola is of the form shown in equation (4) that is, (x – h) 2 = 4p(y – k) and it is
(x – 5)2 = 4p(y – (–2))
(x – 5)2 = 4p(y + 2) … (7)
If the origin (0, 0) is on the parabola, then it is a solution of this equation, hence, we have
(0 – 5)2 = 4p (0 + 2)
25 = 8p
25
 p=
8
By putting the value of p into (7), we obtain
25
(x – 5)2 = (y + 2)
8
This is the required equation of the given parabola.
109
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Applications of Parabola
Parabolas are of immense application of mathematics to
the physical world. It describes the path of a projectile that is
fired and acted upon by the force of gravity. Properties of
parabolas are used in the design of mirrors for telescopes and
searchlights and they are also employed in the design of field
microphones used in broadcasts of football games.

110
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
6.2 THE ELLIPSE
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points in the plane (the foci) is constant. The orbits of planets in the solar system are elliptical
with the sun at one of the foci.
y

P(x, y)

x
F (–c, 0) 0 F(c, 0)

Fig 6.10

By introducing suitable coordinate systems, we may derive simple equations for ellipse by
choosing the x-axis as the line through the two foci F and F with the origin at the mid-point of
the line segment F F, with this point referred to as the centre of the ellipse. If F has coordinate
(c, 0) for c > 0, then F has coordinates (–c, 0), since F 0  F 0 and the distance between the two
foci F and F, that is, F F is denoted by 2a. If point P(x, y) is on the ellipse as shown above, then
by definition of ellipse,
F P  PF  2a
By distance formula, we have
111
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 x   c 2   y  0 2  x  c 2   y  02  2a
x  c 2  y 2  2a  x  c 2  y 2
By squaring both sides, we have
(x2 + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a x  c 2  y 2 + (x – c)2 + y2
x2 + 2xc + c2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a x  c   y 2 + x2 – 2xc + c2 + y2
2

4a2 – 4cx = 4a x  c   y 2
2

4(a2 – cx) = 4a x  c   y 2
2

a2 – cx = a x  c   y 2
2

By squaring both sides again, we obtain:

a4 – 2a2cx + c2x2 = a2 [(x – c)2 + y2]
= a2(x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2)
= a2x2 – 2a2cx + a2c2 + ay2
i.e., x2(a2 – c2) + a2y2 = a2(a2 – c2)
Dividing both sides by a2 (a2 – c2), we have
x2 y2
 2 1
a2 a  c2
For convenience, we put b2 = a2 – c2 for b > o in this to obtain
x2 y2
 2 1 … (6.1)
a2 b
This is the standard form of the equation of the ellipse with foci on the x-axis and centre at the
origin.
From equation (6.1), since c > 0 and b2 = a2 – c2, it follows that a2 > b2 and obviously, a >
b. The x-intercepts of the graph may be found by setting y = 0 in the formula given by equation
(6.1) to obtain:
x2
1
a2
112
i.e., x2 = a2
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 It should be noted that ellipse is symmetric to both the x-axis and the y-axis (by applying the symmetry
test putting x = –x and y = –y in the formula given in equation (6.1), the formula remains unchanged). The
graph of ellipse is equally symmetric with respect to the origin.
In Figure 6.11 given below, the graph of an ellipse for foci in the y-axis is drawn showing its foci,
vertices and the minor/major axis of the ellipse.
y Vertex (0, a)

F (0, c)

Major axis
Minor axis
Vertex M (–b, 0)
0 Vertex M (b, 0) x

P(x, y)

F (0, –c)

Vertex (0, –a)

Fig 6.11

The equation of the ellipse is obtained by interchanging x and y in equation (6.1), to obtain
x2 y2
2
 2 1 … (6.2)
b a 113
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 6.5
Discuss and sketch the graph of the ellipse x2 + 5y2 = 10

Solution
x2 y2
To obtain the standard form of the equation of the ellipse 2  2  1 ,
a b
x2 y 2
we divide through this equation by 10 to have   1,
10 2
where a2 = 10,  a =  10 and b2 = 2,  b =  2
 
Hence, the end points of the major axis are  10 ,0 and that of the minor axis is 0, 2 .  
Since b2 = a2 – c2
y
   2 2
  10 
2
2
c 2

2 = 10 – c
(0, 2 )
 c2 = 10 – 2
 c=  8
Consequently, the foci are  8 ,0   1

and with these pieces of information, (– 10 , 0) F F ( 10 , 0)

we sketch the ellipse as follows: Vertex Vertex
–1 0 1 2

–1

(0, – 2 )

114
2
Fig 6.12: The Graph of Ellipse x + 5y = 0 MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 6.6
Sketch the ellipse 5x2 + y2 = 5 and locate the foci and vertices

Solution
x2 y 2
We write the equation in the general form by dividing through it by 5 to obtain  1
1 5
2 2
x y
which is equivalent to 2  2  1
a b
With b2 = 1,  b = ±1 and a2 = 5,  a =  5
Since a = ±5, the vertices (major axis) are (0, – 5 ) and (0, 5 ) and since c  a 2  b 2    2
5  1 , c
2

= ±2. The foci are the points (0, –2) and (0, 2) and with these pieces of information, the ellipse is as drawn
in Figure 6.13 below:

y
(0, 5 )

F(0 ,2)

0 x
(1, 0) (1, 0)

F(0 ,-2)

(0, – 5 )
115
Fig 6.13 MTH103 - GEOMETRY
Example 6.7
Write the equation of the ellipse with vertices (±3, 0) and foci (±2, 0).

Solution
The major axis is given, showing that a = 3 and from foci (±2, 0), observe that c = 2 but b2 = a2
– c2 = 32 – 22 = 5.
2 2 x2 y 2
By putting the values of a and b into the standard form of the equation of the ellipse 2  2  1 , we
a b
have
x2 y2
 1
3 2
 5
2

x2 y2
i.e.  1
9 5
By multiplying through this by 45, we obtain 5x2 + 9y2 = 45 as the required equation of the ellipse.

Application of Ellipse
Below are some few applications of ellipse:
(i) In accordance with Keepler’s laws of planetary motion, planets move in elliptical orbits
with the sun at one of the foci. Some comets move in elliptical orbits around the sun (for
example, Halley’s Comet).
(ii) The movement of electron in an atom conform to an elliptical orbit approximately with the
nucleus at one of the foci.
116
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
6.3 THE HYPERBOLA
A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points in the
plane (the foci) is a positive constant.
Observe that the definition of hyperbola is similar to that of an ellipse; the only difference is that instead of
using the sum of distances from two fixed points as in the definition of ellipse, we use the difference in that of
hyperbola.
To obtain a simple equation for a hyperbola, we choose a coordinate system with foci F(c, 0) and F (–c, 0)
and denote the (constant) distance by 2a, then, a point P(x, y) is on the hyperbola as shown in Figure 6.14 below if
and only if either one of the following is true:
PF  PF   2a
or PF   PF  2a ... (1)

y
y = –b/ax P(x, y)

x
F (–c, 0) F (c, 0)

Fig 6.14
117
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 For hyperbola, we need a < c in order to obtain points on the hyperbola which are not on the
x-axis, for if in such a point, then from the Figure 6.14 above, observe that
PF  F F  PF 
But, since the length of one side of a triangle is always less than the sum of the lengths of the other
two sides, then similarly,
PF   F F  PF
Obviously, the equivalent forms for the above inequalities are:
PF  FF   F F 
PF   PF  F F
Using the fact that F F  2c and from the equations in (1), the latter inequalities imply that
2a < 2c or a < c
Then, the equations labelled (1) can be replaced by the single equation
PF  PF   2a
Then, by using the distance formula, we obtain
x  c 2   y  02  x   c 2   y  02  2a
By employing the same simplification procedure used to deriving an equation for an ellipse
in section 6.2, we arrive at an equivalent equation
x2 y2
2
 2 2
1
a c a
For convenience, we let b2 = c2 – a2, where b > 0 in the equation above, to obtain:
x2 y2
 1
a 2 b2 118
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
which is the standard form for the equation of a hyperbola with foci on the x-axis and centre at the origin. Using the
tests for symmetry, observe that the graph of hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both axes and the origin and the
x-intercepts are  a so that the points V (a, 0) and V (–a, 0) are called the vertices of the hyperbola while the line
segment V V is known as the transverse axis of the hyperbola. There are no y-intercepts since the equation
y2
 2  1 has no solution.
b
x2 y2
If the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola 2  2  1 is solved for y, we obtain
a b
b 2 2
y x a
a
Hence, there are no points (x, y) on the graph if x2 – a2 < 0, that is, if – a < x < a. However, there are points P(x,
y) on the graph if x  a or x  – a.
To arrive at a precise description of the graph of the hyperbola, it is necessary to investigate the position of the
point P(x, y) on the hyperbola when x is universally very large. If x  a, we may write the last equation in the form
b a2
y   x 1 2
a x
If x is large (in comparison to a), the radii and is close to 1, hence, the ordinate y of point P(x, y) on the
hyperbola is close to either (b/a)x or (–b/a)x. It means that the point P(x, y) is close to the line with equation y =
(b/a)x when y is positive or the line with equation y= b x when y is negative. As x increases or decreases, it is said
a
that point P(x, y) approaches one of these lines. A situation arises when x  – a, the line with equations y = 
b/ax is called the asymptotes of the hyperbola. These asymptotes serve as a good guide for sketching the graph of a
hyperbola which is as illustrated in Figure 6.15 below, where they are represented by dashed line to indicate the
manner in which the points on the hyperbola approach the asymptotes as x increases or decreases. The two curves
that make up the hyperbola are called the branches of the hyperbola.
119
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 y
y = b/ax
y = –b/ax

x
F (–c, 0) V (–a, 0) V(a, 0) F (c, 0)

Fig 6.15

The procedure for sketching the asymptotes is by first plotting the vertices V(a, 0) and V  (–a, 0) and the
points W(0, b) and W (0, –b) as in Figure 6.16 below. The line segment W W of length 2b is known as the
conjugate axis of the hyperbola. By drawing horizontal and vertical lines through the end points of the
conjugate and transpose axes respectively, so that the diagonals of the resulting rectangle from here have slopes
b/a and –b/a. Consequently, if these diagonals are extended, we obtain the asymptotes of the hyperbola that
we are interested in sketching after which this hyperbola can be easily sketched using the initially
constructed asymptotes as a guide. This is as shown in Figure 6.16 below.
120
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 y

W (0, b)

x
V (–a, 0) V(a, 0)

W (0, –b)

b b
y=– a
x y= a
x
2 2
x y
Fig 6.16: A sketch of hyperbola 2
 2 1
a b
Example 6.8
Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation 16x2 – 9y2 = 144

Solution
We need to write this given equation in the form
x2 y 2
 1
a 2 b2
By dividing through by 144, we have
16 x 2 9 y 2
 1
144 144
x2 y2
i.e.  1
9 16 121
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 x2 y2
  1
32 4 2
Showing that a2 = 32 and b = 42 so that a = 3 and b = 4
Hence, the hyperbola has vertices (3, 0) and the end points (0,4) of the conjugate axis that
determines a rectangle whose diagonals when extended give us the asymptotes that has equation y = 
4
b/a, that is, y .
3
But c2 = a2 + b2
= 32 + 42 = 25
 c=5
Hence, the foci of the hyperbola are (c, 0), that is (5, 0).
The graph of the hyperbola is sketched as shown in Figure 6.17 below.

Fig: 6.17
W (0, 4)

F (–5, 0) F(5, 0)
x
V (–3, 0) –4 –2 2 4
V(3, 0)

W (0, –4)

x2 y2
2
 2 1
Fig 6.17: A sketch of hyperbola a b

From this example, observe that for hyperbolas, it is not always true that a > b as it is for
ellipses, but for hyperbola, we may have a < b, b > a or b = a as the case may be at times. 122
MTH103 - GEOMETRY
 EXERCISES
1. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola having equation y2 = –6x and then sketch the
graph.
2. Write the equation of the parabola that has vertex at the origin, opens upward and passes
through the point P(–3, 7).
3. Discuss and sketch the graph of the parabola
2x = y2 + 8y + 22.
4. Write the equation of ellipse with vertices (4, 0) and foci (2, 0).
5. Sketch the graph of ellipse 9x2 + 4y2 = 25
6. Discuss and sketch the graph of the ellipse
4x2 + 18y2 = 36.
7. For a hyperbola having vertices (3, 0) which passes through the point P (2, 2), write an
equation for this hyperbola stating its foci and asymptotes.
8. Discuss and sketch the graph of the hyperbola
9x2 – 4y2 = 36
9. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation 4x = y2 + 10y + 33
10. Write the equation, the foci and the asymptotes of the hyperbola with vertices (4, 0) that
passes through the point P (3, 2).
MTH103 - GEOMETRY 123
GENERAL REVISIONS

124
MTH103 - GEOMETRY