To do now:

Substrate:

Enzyme

Product:

1. Plot a graph of your results.

2. Describe the trends that your results show.
3. Explain why this happened.
4. What was the independent variable?
5. What was the dependent variable?
6. List 3 control variables.
7. If you were asked to carry out a control experiment what could you have done?
8. How could you have made your results more reliable?
2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA

Essential idea: The structure of DNA allows

efficient storage of genetic information.

There is 2m of DNA in each human cell, however the

most cells in the human body have a diameter of 10 μm.
This DNA is divided in chromosomes and coiled around
proteins called histones so that it can be efficiently
stored in each cell's nucleus. The human genome project
which has decoded the case sequence for the whole 2m
of the human genome requires a data warehouse
(pictured) to store the information electronically. This
should give a good idea of just how efficient DNA is at By Chris Paine https://bioknowled
storing information and why it needs to be so.
gy.weebly.com/
http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2013/11/big-data-meets-tiny-storage/
Understandings, Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers
of nucleotides.
2.6.U2 DNA differs from RNA in the number of
strands present, the base composition and
the type of pentose.
2.6.U3 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel
strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen
bonding between complementary base pairs.
2.6.A1 Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the structure
of DNA using model making.
2.6.S1 Drawing simple diagrams of the structure of single In diagrams of DNA structure, the helical
nucleotides of DNA and RNA, using circles, shape does not need to be shown, but the two
pentagons and rectangles to represent phosphates, strands should be shown antiparallel.
Adenine pentoses and bases. should be shown paired with thymine and
guanine with cytosine, but the relative lengths of the
purine and pyrimidine bases do not need to
be recalled, nor the numbers of hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Video questions – slide 1 v=C38ygy4f6ko

1.What are the 2 types of nucleic acid?

2. what is the monomer for nucleic acids?
3. What are the 3 components of a nucleotide?
4. What makes the backbone of DNA and RNA?
5. How are DNA and RNA different? (give specifics)
6. How are the 2 DNA strands connected?
7. What are the bases in DNA and how do they pair?
8. What type of bonding is found between base pairs?
9. How would you describe the shape of a DNA
molecule?
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

http://youtu.be/qy8dk5iS1f0
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

A nucelotide: a single unit of a nucleic acid

Nucleic acids are very large molecules

that are constructed by linking
together nucleotides to form a
polymer.

There are two types of nucleic acid: DNA and RNA.

2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

A nucelotide: a single unit of a nucleic acid

• acidic
• negatively charged

• contains nitrogen
• has one or two rings in it’s
structure

covalent bond

• five carbon atoms = a pentose sugar

• If the sugar is Deoxyribose the polymer is
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA) covalent bond
• If the sugar Ribose the polymer is Ribose
Nucleic Acid (RNA)
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

What is the relevance of this coffee cup to this topic?

http://lucasmind.tumblr.com
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA:

Adenine (A) Guanine Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

(G)

RNA Shares the same bases except that Uracil (U) replaces Thymine

n.b. when talking about bases always use the full name on the first instance
There are 4 different nitrogenous bases in
DNA: PURINES  double
ringed structures

Purines always pair with

pyramidines

PYRAMIDINES 
single ringed
structures

In RNA thymine is replaced by uracil (U). Uracil always base pairs with adenine
as thymine would in DNA
BASE PAIR- acronym
Complementary base
pairs

Cool – Gangsters

Always – Tear [it] (Up)

 Drawing DNA and RNA – slide 2
5’
3 hydrogen
bonds
3’ 3’
5’ C
C
C G

A T
3’ 5’
3’ C C

2 hydrogen
bonds 5’
DNA strands are antiparallel
 run in opposite directions (look at position of pentose
sugar)
Structure of DNA -
Drawing
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=6SbPBmjfcnc
&feature=emb_logo

Model – Competition 
2.6.U1 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.

• Nucleotides a linked into a single strand

via a condensation reaction
• bonds are formed between the
phosphate of one nucleotide and the
pentose sugar of the next
• The phosphate group (attached to the 5'-
C of the sugar) joins with the hydroxyl
(OH) group attached to the 3'-C of the
sugar
• This results in a phosphodiester bond
between the two nucleotides and the
formation of a water molecule
• Successive condensation reactions
between nucleotides results in the
formation of a long single strand
2.6.U3 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen
bonding between complementary base pairs.
2.6.U3 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen
bonding between complementary base pairs.
Slide 3 Questions
2.6.U2 DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the type
of pentose. RNA DNA
Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
Guanine Guanine
Bases (G) Uracil (G)
(U) Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) Cytosine
(C)
Ribose Deoxyribose

Sugar

Single stranded, and often, Two anti-parallel,

but not always, linear in complementary strands
shape form a double helix
Number of strands

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RiboseAndDeoxy.gif
2.6.U3 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen
bonding between complementary base pairs.
6. U3 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen
bonding between complementary base pairs.

In Summary:
• Each polynucleotide chain (strand) consists of a chain of nucleotides bonded
covalently.

• Two polynucleotide chains of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds

between
complementary base pairs:
Adenine pairs with thymine (A=T) via two hydrogen bonds
Guanine pairs with cytosine (G=C) via three hydrogen bonds

• In order for bases to be facing each other and thus able to pair, the two strands
must run in opposite directions (i.e. they are anti-parallel)

• As the polynucleotide chain lengthens, the atoms that make up the molecule will
arrange themselves in an optimal energy configuration. This position of least
resistance results in the double-stranded DNA twisting to form a double helix with
approximately 10 - 15 bases per twist.
4 names of bases in DNA
3 components of a nucleotide
2 ends of a strand are called
2 types of nucleic acid
1 Difference between bases in these
2
D N A Elucidation: Watson & C r i c k
The Discovery of the Structure of DNA - YouTube

James Watson and Francis Crick first elucidated the structural

organisation of a DNA molecule (i.e. a double helix) in 1953

Their efforts were guided by the contributions of other

scientists: Watson
• Pauling – Molecular distances and bond angles
• Levene – Nucleotide composition (sugar, phosphate, base)
• Chargaff – Base composition (equal purine / pyrimidine number)
• Franklin – Helical structure (data shared without permission) Crick

Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the structure of DNA using model making
D N A Elucidation: Model M a k i n g

Watson and Crick built models using trial and error

to quickly assess the viability of potential structures

They assembled a DNA model that demonstrated:

• Anti-parallel DNA strands
• Outer sugar-phosphate backbone
• Inner base pairing (complementary)
• Overall shape of a double helix

Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the structure of DNA using model making
6. A1 Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the structure of DNA using model making.

Whilst others worked using an experimental basis Watson and

Crick used stick-and-ball models to test their ideas on the
possible structure of DNA. Building models allowed them to
visualize the molecule and to quickly see how well it fitted the
available evidence.

It was not all easy going however. Their first model, a triple
helix, was rejected for several reasons:
• The ratio of Adenine to Thymine was not 1:1 (as
discovered by Chargaff)
• It required too much magnesium (identified by
Franklin)

From their setbacks they realized:

• DNA must be a double helix.
• The relationship between the bases and base
pairing
• The strands must be anti-parallel to allow base pairing to
http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/nonspcoll/catalog happen
Because of the visual nature of their work the second and
ue/picture-dnamodel-900w.jpg
the correct model quickly suggested:
• Possible mechanisms for replication
• Information was encoded in triplets of bases
2.6.A1 Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the structure of DNA using model making.

Watson and Crick gained Nobel prizes for their discovery.

It should be remembered that their success was based
on the evidence they gained from the work of others. In
particular the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkins, who were using X-ray diffraction was critical to
their success.

Find out more about the discovery of DNA:

http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/dna_double_helix/readmore.html

http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/nonspcoll/catalog
ue/picture-dnamodel-900w.jpg

http://youtu.be/sf0YXnAFBs8
DNA Organisation

In prokaryotes, DNA is naked (not bound to

protein)
• Also, the DNA adopts a circular configuration
In eukaryotes, DNA is linear and is bound to
histone proteins to form a compact structure Prokaryotic DNA

(chromatin)
This long strand of chromatin may further condense
into a chromosome during the process of cell
division
Eukaryotic DNA
• Each chromosome contains a single DNA
molecule