Presentation on

“Singularity”

School of Studies in Mathematics

PRSU Raipur(C.G.)
Presented by:-
Annu Sonkar(04)
Ayushi Agrawal(05)
Chetan Patel(06)
 Contents
Introduction

Singular Point

Types of Singularity

CSIR NET Questions

Reference
Zeros of Function:-
Let f(z) be function defined on a domain D, if there
exist a point a ∈ D such that f(a) = 0, then a is said
to be a zero of the function.

Order of Zeros:-
Let z = a is a zero of f(z) such that f(a)=0, f(a) = 0 =
f’(a) =……..= f^(m)(a) = 0, but f^(m+1) ≠ 0 then z
= a is said to be zero of f(z) of order (m+1).

Example:-
f(z) = sin z
Then, z = nπ ; n = 1,2,….
f(nπ) = 0, but f’(nπ) = cos nπ ≠ 0
Hence, all are simple zero of f(z).
Regular Point:-
A point z = a is called a regular point for f(z) if f
is analytic at a.

Example:-
f(z) = e^z
Then every point a ∈ C is regular point of f(z).

Note:-
If f(z) is entire function then every complex
number is regular point for function.
Singular Point:-
A point z = a is called a singular point of f(z) if f(z)
is not analytic at a.
OR
A point at which the function ceases to be analytic
i.e. , at which f(z) fails to exist is called singular
point or singularity of the function.

Example:-
(a). f(z) = 1/z is not analytic at z = 0
⇒z = 0 is singular point.
(b). f(z) = tan z
z = (2n+1)π/2 are singular points of tan z.
Note:- if f has no regular point or no where
analytic then f has no singular points.
 Types of Singularity

Singularity

Isolated Non-isolated

Remova
Essential Pole ble
1. Isolated Singularity:-
A singular point z = a is called an isolated
singularity of f if f(z) is analytic in some deleted
neighbourhood of a.
f(z) is analytic
. .
. . . .
f(z) is not analytic
o

.0
.1/2
Example:- f(z) = 1/z
We know that z = 0 is a singular point of 1/z but
1/z is analytic in deleted nbd of z = 0. 1/z is
analytic at every point of nbd of 0 other than 0.
So, z = 0 is isolated singularity of 1/z.
Note:-
Limit point of zeros of f(z) is isolated singularity.

Example:-
f(z) = sin(1/z)
S = {1/nπ ; n ∈ z } is a set of zeros of sin(1/z)
Here, z = 0 is limit point of zeros of f(z)
So, z = 0 is an isolated singularity.

(A)Pole:-
Let f(z) be a function and the principal part of
Laurent’s series expansion about z = zₒ contains finite
term then, z = zₒ is a pole of f(z) and if principal part
contain ‘m’ term then m is the order of pole.
Note:-
Poles of order 1 and 2 are called respectively
simple and double poles.

Example:-
f(z) = (sin z)/zᶟ ; z = 0
Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) about z = 0
f(z) = (1/zᶟ) [z - (zᶟ/3!) + (z⁵/5!) -…….]
= (1/z²) – (1/3!) + (z²/5!) -…….
= (1/z²) + (0/z) – (1/3!) + (z²/5!) -…….
Since principal part contains 2 term
⇒z = 0 is a pole of order 2.
Alternate Definition:-
If there exists a positive integer m such that
lim (z-a) ͫ f(z) = b ≠ 0 (finite)
za
Then z = a is called a pole of order m.
Example:-
f(z) = 1/(eᶻ-1) ; z ≠ 0
lim f(z) = lim 1 =∞
z0 z0 (eᶻ-1)
and lim z [0/0 form]
z0 (eᶻ-1)
lim 1 = 1
z0 eᶻ
⇒z = 0 is a simple pole of f(z).
(B)Essential singularity:-
If the principal part of f(z) at z = a contains an infinite
number of terms, then a is called an isolated essential
singularity.

Alternate Definition:-
If there exists no finite value of m such that
lim (z-a) ͫ f(z) = b ≠ 0 (finite)
za
Then z = a is called an isolated essential singularity.

Note:-
If lim f(z) does not exists then z = a is called
za essential singularity.
Example:-
f(z) = e^(1/z)
Here z = 0 is an essential singularity of f(z)
f(z) = sin(1/(z-a))
Here z = a is an essential singularity of f(z).

(C)Removable singularity:-
An isolated singularity z, of f(z) is called removable if
f(z) can be defined at z, so that it become analytic at zₒ.

Example:-
f(z) = (sin z)/z ; z ≠ 0
Given that f(z) is not defined at z = 0 but we can define the
function at z = 0. so that it becomes analytic at z = 0.
f(z) = (sin z)/z ; z ≠ 0
f(z) = 1 ; z = 0
Alternate Definition 1:-
A point z = a is called removable singularity of f(z)
if
lim f(z) exists finitely.
za

Example:-
f(z) = (sin z)/z ; z ≠ 0
Above function forms (0/0) form at z = 0, then
lim (sin z)/z = 1(finite)
z0
i.e., limit exists finitely at z = 0
⇒z = 0 is removable singularity of f(z).
Alternate Definition 2:-
Let f(z) be a function and the principal part of Laurent’s
series expansion about z = a does not contain any term
i.e., principal does not exist about z = a, then z = a is
called removable singularity.

Example:-
f(z) = (eᶻ-1)/z ; z ≠ 0
Laurent’s expansion of the given function f(z) about z =
0,
f(z) = (1/z) [1 + z + z²/2! + zᶟ/3! + ……. - 1]
= 1 + z/2! + z²/3! + ……
⇒ there are no principal part of f(z)
⇒z = 0 is removable singularity of f(z)
2. Non-Isolated Singularity:-
A singular point z is called non-isolated singularity of
f(z) if every deleted nbd of z contain singular point.

.
.zₒ
Alternate Definition:-
Limit points of poles of f(z) is non-isolated singularity.
Example:-
f(z) = 1/(sin π/z)
Then poles are π/z = nπ or z = 1/n
Here limit point of pole is 0
⇒z = 0 is non-isolated singularity
Singularity at z = ∞:-
Example:-
The singularity of f(z) = tan z at z = ∞ is –
(a)Isolated essential (b)Pole
(c)Non-isolated (d)None of these
Solution:- f(z) = tan z, z = ∞
⇒ f(1/z) = tan(1/z), z = 0
⇒ f(1/z) = sin(1/z)
cos(1/z)
Poles of f(z), cos(1/z) = 0
⇒ 1/z = (2n+1)(π/2)
⇒ z = 2/(2n+1) π
⇒ z = 0, is the limit point of pole
⇒ at z = 0, f(1/z) is non-isolated.
⇒ at z = ∞, f(z) is also non-isolated.
 CSIR NET QUESTIONS
(1)Let f(z) = (z-1) then, [CSIR NET 2013]
exp(2πi/z)-1
(a)f has isolated singularity at z = 0
(b)f has removable singularity at z = 1
(c)f has finitely many pole
(d)Each pole of f is of order 1.
Solution:-
(b) at z = 1
f(z) = (1-1) [ (0/0) form ]
exp(2πi/1)-1
⇒ it has a removable singularity.
(c) f(z) has poles ,
exp(2πi/z)-1 = 0
⇒ exp(2πi/z) = 1
⇒ exp(2πi/z) = exp(2nπi)
⇒ 2πi/z = 2nπi
⇒ z = 1/n
⇒ f has infinitely many pole.

(d) z = 1/n
Each pole is of order 1, for all n.
(2)For z ∈ C define f(z) = eᶻ then, [CSIR NET 2014]
(eᶻ-1)
(a)f is entire
(b)The only singularity of f are poles
(c) f has finitely many poles on the imaginary axis
(d)Each pole of f is simple.
Solution:-
(b)Poles are,
eᶻ-1 = 0
⇒ eᶻ = 1
⇒ eᶻ = exp(2nπi)
⇒ z = 2nπi
⇒ only singularity are poles
(c) z = 2nπi
⇒ f has finitely many poles as n-varies on imaginary axis.
(d) Each pole is simple.
(3)Consider the f(z) = sin(π z/2) [CSIR NET 2017]

sin(πz)
Then f has poles at -
(a)All integers
(b)All even integers
(c) All odd integers
(d) All integers of the form 4k+1, k ∈ Z
Solution:-
f(z) = sin(π z/2)
sin(πz)
⇒ f(z) = sin(π z/2) = 1 .
2sin(πz/2)cos(π z/2) 2cos(π z/2)
For poles, cos(π z/2) = 0
⇒ cos(π z/2) = cos(2n+1)π/2
⇒(π z/2) = (2n+1)π/2
⇒ z = 2n+1

(c) All odd integers

(d) All integers of the form 4k+1, k ∈ Z
 Reference
Complex Analysis
By Dr. H.K. Pathak

Published By:-

Shree Shiksha Sahitya Prakashan

411,New Mohanpuri ,Meerut-250 002
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