Introduction to Environment:

Environment is a comprehensive term meaning surroundings. It includes

the gaseous envelope surrounding earth, the Atmosphere, the mass of
water above and below the earth, the Hydrosphere, the land masses that
support life, the Lithosphere, and the whole plethora of microbes, plants,
and animals, collectively referred as, Biosphere.

Earth is a unique planet of Solar

System which has free water, oxygen
and life. The pyramid of life (Fig. 1.1)
is supported by a complex set of
interactions and exchanges between
water, air, land and life.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere constitutes a gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth
and held in place by the forces of gravity. It is essential to life in terms of
supplying oxygen for breathing and circulating carbon-di-oxide. The
composition of atmosphere is generally uniform upto an altitude of 80 km.
This portion of atmosphere is called Homosphere and is made up of
78.084% Nitrogen and 20.946% oxygen (by volume). The rest is made up of
Hydrogen (0.5 ppm) and inert gases viz. (expressed as parts per million (by
volume) and not %):
Argon (Ar): 9340 ppm, inert
Neon (Ne): 182 ppm, inert
Helium (He): 53 ppm, inert
Krypton (Kr) 1.2 ppm, inert
Xenon (Xe) 1.0 ppm, inert
Radon (Rn) Traces (Radio active)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 340 ppm, essential for life
Ozone (O3) Traces Toxic
Other materials which are highly variable are, Sulfur-di-oxide (SO 2)

Carbonmono-oxide (CO), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O). The

concentration of water 5 vapor is highly variable near the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere will also have particulate matter (dust) in varying amounts.
Other emissions may also add, hydro carbons (HC), oxides of Nitrogen
(NO + NO2), Chloro flouro carbons, spores and pollens (from molds and
plants).
Environment Pollution and Quality:

Environmental quality, its degradation and management are closely related.

It is a balance between human systems and nature. As long as the balance is
maintained, the quality of environment remains conducive to the health and
well being. Imbalances produce disorders and even calamities. It is true that
high quality environment means differently to different people. But all agree
that trash, dirt, disease, noise, strife, poverty and pollution reduce the
quality of environment.

Abuse of environment today is our main concern. It may be pollution of

water, air and land or over exploitation of natural resources. According to
Oodum (1971) “Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical
or biological characteristics of environment that may or will harmfully effect
human life or that of desirable species or industrial processes, living
conditions and cultural assets or that may or will waste or deteriorate raw
material resources”.
Atmospheric Pollution:
A polluted atmosphere is generally considered as unnatural atmosphere. It may
be due to addition of pollutants from nature or due to the activities of man in
terms of population growth, expansion in industry and technology and social
change like urbanization and rising standards of living.
Atmosphere is a very suitable mixture of Oxygen and Nitrogen. In addition, there
are some other gases and aerosols, vapor varying in content and concentration.
Polluted atmosphere may have gases, dusts, aerosols, spores, pollens as
overburden. Some of these material are physiologically inert but others may
produce reactions which range from mild inconvenience to severe toxicity. When
we breathe in they reach our respiratory system. Our sense of smell does not
respond to all harmful pollutants. Some of them are perceived (H2 S, HCN) in low
concentrations but do not induce defense reactions. The effects appear much
later.
The basic objectives of air pollution monitoring are:
i) Investigations of the atmosphere in residential areas in the interest of large
population.
ii) Investigations in the industries and workshops subjected to hazards of
waste gases.
iii) Investigation in the neighbour hood of industries
iv) Investigations of emissions belching out of stack / ventilators from
factories / industries.
Five substances, known as primary pollutants account for more than 90% of
air pollution. They are: (i) Oxides of Carbon, CO (ii) Oxides of Nitrogen, NO,
NO2 (iii) Oxides of Sulfur, SO2, SO3 (iv) Hydro Carbon, HC (v) Particulate
matter, dust etc.
Origin of pollution:
The air pollutants are constantly being added to atmosphere are generated by human
activities. Any activity considered as system, is capable of producing a desired
product. No system can be called a perfect system (inputs = output).
A real system is imperfect as it produces one or more unwanted bye products.

Input Output
System
Perfect System
Input Output
System Unwanted bye products

Imperfect Perfect System

 Some typical examples of imperfect systems are as under:

Input System Desired activity Unwanted bye products

Petrol, air Automobiles Transportation Exhaust gases
CO, NO, NO2
HC dust
Coal, air Fire Power generation Smoke, CO, CO2 ,
NO, NO2 , HC, SO2,
dust (un-burnt Carbon)
The five important activities generate pollution are :

Activities Over all CO Nox Sox HC Dust

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Transportation 42 64 48 5 51 4.2
Fuel Combustion 21 2 40 72.7 2.5 26
(stationary
sources)
Industrial process 14 10 1 22 14 31
Solid waste 5.2 8 3 5 9 3.8
disposal
Miscellaneous 17.4 16 8 4 23.5 35

Transportation is the major culprit and Carbon mono oxide is the most severe pollutant
Carbon mono oxide:
These are produced chiefly through incomplete combustion. Some carbon
mono oxide is also produced (natural sources) by geological processes and
biological processes like volcanic eruptions, natural gas emissions, electrical
discharges, marsh gas and seed germination.

Oxides of Nitrogen:
These are produced due to combustion but a larger quantity is generated by
natural processes. Of the man made activities producing oxides of Nitrogen
(NO and NO2 ) are the combustion both from transportation as well as from
stationary sources.
Oxides of Sulfur:
Oxides of sulfur include SO2 and SO3. They are chiefly produced by
combustion of fossil fuel in stationary sources. Thermal power plants
contribute a large share. Transportation and Industrial processes also
generate them. They are corrosive in nature.
Hydrocarbons:
An organic compound containing only Hydrogen and Carbon and are
gaseous at room temperature are designated as Hydrocarbons. In
unpolluted areas, methane (CH4 , a natural decay gas) is most abundant.
Other hydrocarbons normally noticeable are petroleum products and
gasoline viz. Olefin, acetylene, benzene, ethylene and toluene. They are
highly reactive and cause smog formation.
Particulate Matter :
These include any dispersed matter smaller than 500 µ but larger than 0.002 µ. They
are classified according to size and biological properties.

Settleable > 10 µ The particles of the size between 100 µ -

0.001 µ are of interest in pollution
Suspended < 10 µ

Biological Spores, pollen and bacteria

The particles less than 10.0 µ are referred as Respiratory suspended particulate
Matter (RSPM). Particles < 1.0 µ are retained) in the lungs.
Effect of Air Pollutants on man, material and Vegetation:

All pollutants released in the atmosphere do not produce adverse effects,

though some of them are intensely toxic. Other’s cause mild inconvenience.

Some common pollutants causing physiological effects are listed below:

A) Biological Pollutant Effect

i) Aeroallergens (Pollen, spores, mold, yeast, hair,
feathers, vegetative fibers, grain dust cosmetics,
paint and glues
ii) Biological aerosols, bacteria, fungus, virus
Bronchial asthma, hay fever, body
rash and even eczyma
Pulmonary tuberculosis, anthrax.
Throat infections, whooping
cough, Diphtheria, common cold,
Influenza
B) Non-biological Pollutant
i) Ammonia (from Chemical industries ,refineries,
Coke Ovens)
ii) Asbestos (air conditioning insulation)
iii) Chlorine (manufacture, and use in water
treatment)
iv) Carbon-mono-oxide←(Combustion, stationary,
sources)
v) Sulfur-di-oxide
vi) Oxides of Nitrogen (Combustion)
vii) Hydro-carbons (combustion, petrochemical
establishments)
Effect
Corrosive to mucous lining,
damage to eyes
Pulmonary fibrosis
Irritation to eyes / nose/ throat
Asphyxiation /suffocation
Irritation and Cardiac ailments
Asphyxiation, pulmonary edema
Anasthesing effect -vomiting,
vertigo
Guidelines of Sampling and Monitoring :

The guidelines for selection of ambient air monitoring stations are given in
IS5182 part IV.
The guidelines state that “when objective of air sampling is to identify the
contribution from specific sources of pollution, the sampling locations should
be located in upwind and downwind of such sources”. The location of air
quality monitoring stations should satisfy the following conditions.
1) The site should be representative of the area selected.
2) The station should be set up and operated so as to yield data that can be
compared with those from stations within the network.