Example Slide of User Functions

Time guide the slide

should be finished by

A fillet welded Lap joint*

A spot welded Lap joint*

Indicates a click is required to progress to the next element

Relevant course text section:page/pages if applicable
Text Page Ref 1:9/10
A Weld:* A union between materials caused by heat,
and or pressure

A Joint:* A configuration of members

Text Page Ref 1:1

Butt welds:*

Fillet welds:*

Spot/Seam welds:*

Plug/Slot welds:*

Edge welds:*
Butt joints: *

T joints: *

Lap joints: *

Corner joints:* Closed Open

corner corner*
Remember, the purposes of a weld preparation is to allow access
for the welding process, penetration and fusion through the area
of the joint and its faces*

The basic rule is this:

The more you take out, then the more you must put back in*

This has major effects on economics and distortion control etc

The root face, root gap and angle of bevel values, the choice of
single, or double sided preparations, are dictated only by the type
of welding process, the position and accessibility of the joint*
Angle of bevel*
Root face*

Included angle*

Root radius* Root gap*

Root landing*
Single bevel

Single V

Single J

Single U*
Double bevel

Double V

Double J

Double U*
A butt welded butt joint*

A fillet welded butt joint*

A compound welded butt joint*

A fillet welded T joint*

A butt welded T joint*

A compound welded T joint*

A fillet welded Lap joint*

A spot welded Lap joint*

A compound welded Lap joint*

A fillet welded Closed Corner joint*

A butt welded Closed Corner joint*

A compound welded Closed Corner joint*

An inside fillet welded Open Co
C rner joint*

An outside fillet welded Open Corner joint*

A double fillet welded Open Corner joint*

 Weld Face*
Actual Throat Thickness*
Weld Width*
1.2.3.4. Weld Toes* Design Throat Thickness*

1 2
A

B 3 4

HAZ* Fusion Boundary*

Weld Root* Fusion Zone*
A + B = Excess Weld Metal**
 Vertical Leg Length*

Weld face*

Horizontal Leg Length*

Excess weld metal **
Design throat*
Actual throat*
“a” = Nominal throat thickness “s” = Effective throat thickness

 
a s

Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW & SAW etc*

*
 6 mm

80°
Very Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle

3 mm*

20°
Improved Weld Toe Blend Angle
It is also possible that the height of excess weld metal is within
the accepted limit of an applied standard, but the toe blend is
unacceptable,
unacceptable as shown below*

90° 3 mm

Extremely poor toe blend, but excess weld metal is within limits*
Weld: A Union of materials
Joint: A Configuration of members
Weld Preparation: Preparing a joint to allow access and fusion.
Types of Weld: Butt. Fillet. Spot. Seam Plug. Slot. Edge.
Types of Joint: Butt. T. Lap. Corner (Open & Closed)
Types of Preparation: Bevel’s. V’s. J’s. U’s. Single & Double Sided.
Preparation Terms: Bevel/included angle. Root face/gap. Land/Radius
Weldment Terms: Weld face & root. Fusion zone & boundary. HAZ.
Weld toes.Weld width
Weld Sizing (Butts): DTT. ATT. Excess weld metal.
Weld Sizing (Fillets): DTT. ATT. Excess weld metal. Leg length *
 It is the duty of all welding inspectors:
To ensure that welding operations are carried out in
accordance with written, or agreed practices or
specifications

Before
*
During
After

Describe your duties to your code of practise. “CSWIP Exam”*

 Discuss the following
Before Welding:
1) Safety:
Legislation and safe working practices
2) Documentation:
Spec. Drawings. Procedures. Welder approvals. Certificates. Mill sheets

3) Welding Process and ancillaries:

Equipment. Cables. Regulators. Ovens. Quivers etc

4) Incoming Consumables:
Materials/welding consumables (Size. Condition. Specification. Storage)
5) Marking out preparation & set up:
Method. Angles/Root face/gap values. Distortion control. Pre-heat prior to
tack welding if applicable*
 During Welding:

1) Pre-Heating. (Method and control)

2) In process distortion control (Balance or sequence welding)
3) Consumable control. (Correct baking and storage prior to use)
4) Welding process (Related parameters i.e. volts/amps. gas flow rate)
5) Welding run sequence and inter-pass cleaning
6) Minimum/maximum Inter-pass temperatures
7) Full compliance with all elements given on the WPS*
 After Welding:

1) Visual Inspection
2) Non Destructive testing
3) Repairs*
4) Repair procedures (NDT/Excavation/Welding/Welder approval)
5) PWHT
6) Hydro-static testing
7) Submission of all inspection reports to QC departments*
To Observe Activities &
Imperfections*

To Record Activities &

Imperfections*

Activities &
To Compare
Imperfections*
Some attributes/skills of an effective Welding Inspector:*

•Honest •Knowledgeable
•Literate •Experienced
•Respected •Record keeping skills
•Dedicated •Communication skills
•Impartial •Safety conscious
•Observant •Inquisitive
•Decisive •Responsible
•Analytical* •Diplomatic skills*
A Welding Inspectors toolbox should contain*
A welding gauge (Cambridge style, or high low gauges etc)
A tape measure and scale
A wire brush
A magnifying glass
A torch and mirror
A specification, pen and report, or note paper
Any other aids to visual inspection*
Inspection may utilise the following specialised equipment:*

Boroscopes (For assessing root runs in small Ø pipes)

Flow-meter (For measuring gas flow rates in MIG/MAG/TIG)
Simple NDT equipment (Penetrants and MPI)
Complex NDT equipment (Radiography or Ultrasonics)
Note: Both simple and complex NDT methods requires the
specialised skills of qualified operators/technicians*
Welding imperfections can be categorized into groups:

1) Cracks
2) Gas Pores & Porosity
3) Solid Inclusions
4) Lack of fusion
5) Profile & Lack of Filling
6) Mechanical or Surface damage
7) Misalignment*
 A HAZ hydrogen crack, initiated at the weld toe
Most cracks are initiated from stress concentrations *
 Surface breaking porosity
Shrinkage cavity*
  Coarse cluster porosity
Fine cluster porosity
Blow hole > 1.6 mm Ø

Hollow root bead An isolated internal porosity

 
 Surface breaking solid inclusion
Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of inter-run fusion* Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of sidewall fusion

Internal solid inclusion Solid inclusions caused by

undercut in the previous weld run
 Lack of sidewall fusion &
incompletely filled grove*
Overlap (Causing cold laps)

Lack of inter-run fusion Lack of sidewall fusion

Lack of root fusion

 Spatter An Incompletely filled groove

Lack of root fusion

Bulbous, or irregular contour
Arc Strikes
Poor toe blend

Incomplete root penetration

*
 Shrinkage grooves

Crater pipe Root concavity

 

*
Root oxidation in Stainless Steel
Excess penetration, and burn through
Root Run or “Hot pass” undercut

Parent metal, surface undercut

 

Weld metal, surface undercut*

 
Weld metal, surface undercut Parent metal, “top toe” undercut*
 Any surface damage caused by:
Grinding
Hammering/chisel marks
Slag chipping hammer marks
Torn cleats (Hammered off attachments)
Arc strikes

All of the above may cause serious weakness to the weld area*
 Linear
Excess weld metal height
Lowest plate to highest point

3 mm
Linear misalignment measured in mm

Angular

15

Angular misalignment measured in degrees*

Why ?* To establish the level of mechanical properties*
properties

Which properties ?*
1) Hardness*
2) Toughness*
3) Tensile strength*
4) Ductility*
Mechanical:* Describes the actions of “force & motion”

Properties:* Something that makes one material useful for a

job. These include the properties of:

Hardness:* The ability of a material to resist indentation

Toughness:* The ability of a material to absorb impact energy

Tensile strength:* The ability to resist the action of a pulling force

Ductility:* The ability to deform plastically under tension*

We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint*

We divide tests into Quantitative & Qualitative methods:*

1) Quantitative tests: (Have units)*

2) Qualitative tests: (Have no units)*

Types of tests include:

1) Quantitative tests:
Hardness tests
Toughness tests
Tensile strength tests*

2) Qualitative tests:
Macro tests
Bend tests
Fracture tests*
The test weld is usually cut into sections as follows:
The location of specimens will depend upon the standard

Charpy V test Bend test*

Tensile test Macro/Hardness test

Start/ Stop
 The specimen below has been polished and is
ready to be hardness tested

= Hardness Survey

Thickness

Base metal HAZ Fusion boundary Weld metal

Further hardness surveys may be taken as the thickness
of the specimen increases*
Generally we use a diamond or steel ball to form an indentation

We measure the width of the indentation to gauge the hardness*

1) Vickers Diamond Pyramid: Always uses a diamond*

2) Brinell hardness test: Always uses a steel ball*

3) Rockwell hardness test: Uses a ball, or diamond

depending on the scale*
Machined notch 10 x 10 mm

The specimen may be tested from different areas of the weld.*

Graduated scale Pendulum Hammer

of absorbed
energy in Joules*

Location of specimen
1) Charpy V test: 10 x 10 (Specimen horizontal) Joules*

2) Izod test: 10 x 10 (Specimen vertical) Ft.lbs*

3) CTOD test: Specimen used is actual design size.

Detailed fracture report. mm*
Mn < 1.6 % increases Joules absorbed
toughness in steels*

Transition 47 Joules Ductile Fracture

Zone
Three specimens are normally
tested at each temperature.
28 Joules

Transition Temperature Range

Brittle Fracture
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 + 40
Testing temperature
A Section of weld is cut, or machined out across the test piece
and tested in tension to failure. The units are usually in N/mm²

Transverse reduced test piece*

 Radius
(For radius reduced test specimens only)
 
Weld
Test gripping area   HAZ
   
Direction of test
  Plate material Reduced Section
   

Used to assess the tensile strength of the weld metal

 BS 709 / BS En 10002
All Weld Metal Tensile
Testing

Direction of the test *

Tensile test piece cut

along weld specimen.
Firstly, before the tensile test 2 marks are made 50mm apart

50 mm

During the test, Yield point & Tensile strength are measured
The specimen is put together and the marks are re-measured

75 mm

A new measurement of 75mm will indicate Elongation E50

%*
1) Excess Weld Metal Height 8) Poor Toe Blend*
7) Laminations

6)Porosity

2) Lack of Sidewall Fusion

5) Root Penetration
3) Lack of Root Fusion

4) Slag inclusion & Lack of inter-run fusion

Bend tests are used to establish fusion in the area under test
Guide A Guided root bend test*
Lack of root fusion shown here*

Former
Test Piece
Force

Further tests include face, side and longitudinal bend tests*

For material over 12 mm thickness, side bend test may be
used*
Specimen prior to test* Specimen after test*
 Saw cut 1 2 3
Hammer blow
X Line of fusion
1 3
Fracture line

Full fracture
X
2 3

1 2
Y Any strait line indicates a
Inspect both surfaces
“Lack of root fusion”*
 Saw Cuts Hammer blow

A
Fracture line

B Inspect both surfaces

Lack of root penetration Inclusions on fracture line*

or fusion
 We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint

We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:*

Quantitative: (Have units) Qualitative: (Have no units)

Hardness (VPN & BHN) Macro tests
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs) Bend tests
Strength (N/mm2 & PSI) Fillet weld fracture tests
Ductility/Elongation (E%) Butt Nick break tests*
The main difference between Macro & Micro is that Micro is
the study of the micro-structure at much higher magnification

The limit of Macro inspection is magnification < X 10

The specimen is usually cut from a stop/start in the test piece

The cut specimen is polished to a fine finish (400 grit)

The specimen must be inspected, before etching*

Remember! The process of inspection is to first:
Observe, then Report, then Compare!*

Use the TWI macro sheets provided to observe and then

make a report on a separate sheet of what you observe*

When you have finished reporting, turn the macro sheet

over and compare your observations with those given on
the back of the sheet* (1 hour)
A definition of the term “Procedure”?*
A systematic method of producing an aim*

Therefore, a “Welding procedure” is?*

A systematic method of producing a sound weld*
What do “you” think about the following statements?*
• Do all welding procedures need to be written?*
• Most production welding procedure are formatted on written
documents or computer spreadsheets, but they need not be written
and may be a product of experience

• Do all welding procedures need to be approved?*

• Most procedures are approved, but not all?
An approved welding procedure is one that has been tested to
ensure that the procedure as carried out, produces a weld that
satisfies a minimum level of quality for the mechanical, physical or
chemical properties desired. If these are not required, then “procedural
approval is unnecessary”*
A Welding Procedure is a recipe of variable parameters,
which will produce the same results of certain quality &
properties if carried out in the same way each time*

To evaluate a Provisional Welding Procedure we need to

check if all the parameters set will work together to produce
the desired results*

.*
Once the weld has been completed it is usually visually
inspected, then Radiography or Ultrasonic testing is usually
applied*
Finally, and most importantly, Mechanically tested to ensure
that the desired level of mechanical properties have been met*
If all the desired properties have been met, then a procedure
qualification record (WPQR or WPAR) is completed with all
the test results, and the procedure then becomes qualified*
From this data, a workable document for production welding is
prepared and called a Welding Procedure Specification. (WPS)*
A CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector is normally responsible for
the testing and approval of welding procedures*
Examples of “Extents of Approval” include:*

a) Diameter of pipe, or thickness of plate

b) Welding position, amperage range, or number of runs
c) Process (On multi process procedures only)
d) Certain material groups
e) Change of consumable to one of the same classification
Only if the class is given in the original procedure
f) Heat input range (kJ/mm)*
Once the procedure has been approved it is then important to
test each welder, to ensure that he has the skill to reach the
minimum level of quality in the weld, as laid down in the
application standard*

There is no need to carry out the mechanical tests of the

procedure, although bend tests are often used to ensure good
side wall fusion
Normally; visual, x ray, bends, fractures and macro’s are used
in welder approval tests*
 When supervising a welder test the welding inspector should:*

 
1)    Check the welding process, condition of equipment and test area for suitability.
2)    Check that extraction systems, goggles and all safety equipment are available.
3)    Check grinders, chipping hammers, wire brush and all hand tools are available.
4)    Check materials to be welded are correct and stamped correctly for the test.
5)    Check welding consumables specification, diameter, and treatment with WPS.
6)    Check the welder’s name and stamp details are correct.
7)    Check that the joint has been correctly prepared and tacked, or jigged.
8)    Check that the joint and seam is in the correct position for the test.
9)    Explain the nature of the test and check that the welder understands the WPS.
10)  Check that the welder carries out the root run, fill and cap as per the WPS.
11)  Ensure welders identity and stop start location are clearly marked.
12)  Supervise or carry out the required tests and submit results to Q/C department.*

A CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector is normally responsible for the

supervision and testing of welder approvals *
Interpretation of Drawings &
Weld Symbols
It could be strongly argued that without a
thorough knowledge of weld symbols, a welding
inspector is unable to fully carry out his full scope
of work*
 Welding Symbols
Most weld symbols contain 5 elements, which are:

1) The arrow line* a. 7 b. 10 5 x 100 (100)

111*
2) The reference line*
3) The symbol*

4) The dimensions*

5) The supplementary information*

1) Convention of the arrow line:
BS. BSEn & AWS
  a)   Shall touch the joint intersection
b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing
c) Shall point towards a single plate preparation*

*
2) Convention of The reference line:
BS 499 (UK) & AWS A 2.4 (US)
a)        Shall touch the arrow line
b) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the
drawing*
*
   Symbols: BS 499 (UK) & AWS A2.4 (US)
a) Welds this side of joint, go underneath the reference line
b) Welds the other side of the joint, go on top of the reference line
c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the
vertical line to the left side of the symbol
d) All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol

e) All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol

i.e. Number of welds, length of welds, length of any (spaces)*

10 4 x 50 (50)*
Representation of welds done from both sides of
the joint intersection, touched by the arrow head

Fillet weld Double bevel Double J*

Double V Double U
 Supplementary Weld Symbols
Toes to be ground
smoothly. (BSEn only)
Site Weld
Ground flush

Concave or Convex
111
Weld all round Welding process.
Numerical BS En & BS
Further supplementary information, such as WPS
number, or NDT may be placed in the fish tail*
3) Convention of The reference line:
BS En 22553 or ISO 2553
a)    Shall touch the arrow line
b) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
c) There shall be a further broken line above or beneath
the reference line (Except where the weld is
symmetrical)* *
or
   Symbols: BSEn 22553. (ISO 2553)
a) Welds this side of joint, go on the unbroken reference line
b) Welds the other side of the joint, go on the broken reference line
c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the
vertical line to the left side of the symbol
d) All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol
e) All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol
i.e. Number of welds, length of welds, length of any spaces
f) All leg lengths shall be preceded by z and throat by a or s*

z 10 4 x 50 (50)*
 Weld Symbols on Drawings
BS 499 & AWS A 2.4

8
8

a5 b8 *

5
8
 Weld Symbols on Drawings
BS En 22553 (ISO 2553)

z8 or

8
z8

a5 z8 or
a5 z8 *
5
8
Example:
Produce a drawing giving symbols for the welds
given as shown below to the specification given
Weld Drawing BS 499
MMA

Example:
Symbol Drawing

111*
 Student Symbols Exercise
Complete a symbols drawing for the welded
joint given below to BS 499 & BSEn 22553

7
10
35 20
15 30

All Fillet weld leg lengths are 10 mm *

All butt welds are MIG welded and all fillet welds with MMA
 Solution BS 499 10
a. 30 111
131
a. 20
10

*
a. 7 b 10
111 a. 35
131 a. 15
10
 Solution BSEn 22553 z. 10
s. 30 111
131
s. 20
z. 10

*
a. 7 z. 10
s. 35
111
131 s. 15
z. 10
A welding process:*
Special equipment used with method, for producing welds

Heating Protection

Requirements:

To make a sound
weld we need to

Properties
Cleaning
Before continuing with the welding processes section, there are
2 safety related terms that should first be understood*

“Duty Cycle” relates to the current carrying capacity of all

conductors, based on a 10 minute cycle i.e. 60% duty cycle
means it can carry the specified current for 6 minutes in 10
then must rest for 4. A 100% duty cycle has no rest period
requirement. (Explained fully in the WIS 5 course notes)*
OEL/MEL (Occupational or Maximum Exposure Limit) which
is used in reference to fume exposure such as that caused in arc
welding. The value may be in PPM or mg/m3 depending on a
particulate fume, or a gas. Typical values in EH/40 are*
Effect on Health Exposure Limit Fume or gas

Extremely toxic 0.025Mg/m3 Cadmium

Low toxicity 5Mg/m3 General Welding Fume
Low toxicity 5Mg/m3 Iron
Low toxicity 5Mg/m3 Aluminium
Extremely toxic PPM 0.20 Ozone
Extremely toxic PPM 0.02 Phosgene

Very low toxicity No OEL Value Argon

O2 air content to be
controlled
 Constant Current/Amperage Volt Amp Characteristic*
OCV Large change in voltage
=
Volts Smaller change in amperage*
Large
arc gap*
Welding Voltage*
Small
arc gap

Amps
Power control Power source.
panel Transformer/
Rectifier
Electrode oven
(Up to 350 °C) Holding Oven
(Up to 200 °C)
Electrodes
Inverter power
Power return source
cable
Electrode holder
Safety visor Power cable
(With dark lens) *
1) A Transformer/Rectifier (Constant current type)

2) A power and power return cable

3) Electrode holder

4) Electrode (To correct specification)

5) Correct visor & glass, all safety clothing and extraction

1) Amperage 2) Arc Voltage

3) Polarity 4) Speed of Travel

5) Electrode type & Ø 6) Duty Cycles

7) Electrode condition 8) Connections

9) Insulation / extraction 10) Electrode treatments*

1) Slag inclusions

2) Arc strikes

3) Porosity

4) Undercut

Most welding imperfections in MMA are caused by a lack of

welder skill, the incorrect settings of the equipment, or the
incorrect use, and treatment of electrodes*
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

1) Field or shop (Portable) 1) High skill factor

2) Range of consumables 2) Short electrode length

3) All positional 3) **Low productivity (OF)

4) *Quick electrode change 4) High level of fume

5) Simple equipment 5) Hydrogen control

* Enabling fast changes in material types to be welded

** Comparatively uneconomic with other processes*
Power control Transformer/
panel Rectifier

Power return Inverter

cable power source

Torch Power control

assemblies panel

Power cable
Tungsten
electrodes*
Flow-meter
Tungsten Tungsten
housing electrodes
Fitted ceramic
Ceramic
shielding cup
shield cup
On/Off switch
Gas lens
Split collet
Gas diffuser
Spare ceramic Torch body
shielding cup *
The tungsten must have
the correct vertex angle*

Grinding is done on a special

jig, and on a dedicated wheel*
Correctly adjusted shielding
with a gas lens will give good
cover without turbulence*

Adjustments to the flow rate

need to made according to
joint design and gas type*
 Before welding

After welding*

A fusible insert is pre-formed and placed filler material

that is mainly used in the root of TIG welded pipes*

It is often termed an “EB insert” after*

The Electric Boat Company of America, who developed it*
1) A Transformer/Rectifier (Constant current type)

2) A power and power return cable

3) An Inert shielding gas. (Argon or Helium)
4) Gas hose, flow-meter, & gas regulator

5) TIG torch head with ground tungsten, collets, ceramics

6) Method of arc ignition (High frequency or lift arc)
7) Correct visor, all safety clothing and good extraction

8) Optional filler rod, to correct specification*

1) Amperage 2) Arc Voltage

3) AC or DC + Polarity 4) Speed of Travel

5) Tungsten type & Ø 6) Duty Cycles

7) Tungsten vertex angle 8) Connections

9) Gas type & flow rate 10) Insulation / extraction

11) Ceramic condition 12) Gas lens fitted*
1) Tungsten inclusions (Low skill, or wrong vertex angle)

2) Surface porosity (Loss of gas shield mainly on site)

3) Crater pipes (Bad weld finish technique i.e. Slope out)

4) Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover

Most welding imperfections with TIG are caused by a lack of

welder skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. Current,
torch manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc*
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

1) High quality 1) Very high skill factor

2) High control of weld pool 2) Range of consumable

3) All positional 3) Loss of gas shield/site

4) Lowest H2 arc process 4) Low productivity (O/F)

5) Low inter-run cleaning 5) High ozone levels*

 Videos
TWI
“Welding with covered electrodes”
ESAB
“TIG Welding Steels & Stainless Steels”
Or equivalent (1 hour)*
1) Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all written
comments and measurements in ink only
2) Report everything that you can observe
3) Do not forget to compare and sentence your report
5) Do not forget to date & sign your report

6) Make any observations, such as recommendations for

further investigation for crack-like imperfections i.e.
penetrant testing*
Slides 52 - 60
WIS 5 Text Ref Section 23
WTC 7 Text Ref Section 17
The purpose of this session is to practice the reporting format
required by CSWIP in the practical plate examination part of the
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors exam

Remember, the responsibilities of a welding inspector are:

Observe
Report
Compare*.
To observe welding imperfections you are required to have good
close vision acuity
A close vision acuity test will be given to you before your exam to
establish if your vision meets the minimum standard required

Its not just the project that must meet the standard!!
You will also require a thorough knowledge of welding
imperfections and their likely location, causes and implications*
After you have observed an imperfection and determined its
type, you must be able to take measurements and complete a
report *

The first report should be in the form of a repair map of the

weld. (i.e. All observations are Identified Sized and Located)
Should the imperfection be a defect and require repair, it will
need to be accurately found and re-identified*

The report map form used in CSWIP will look like the
following:*
Page 1 of 3 VISUAL INSPECTION PLATE REPORT
 
Name [Block capitals]__________________________ Signature ___________________________ Test piece identification
 
Code/Specification used ________________________ Welding process _____________________ Joint type__________________
 
Welding position ______________________________________ Length & thickness of plate____________________ Date___________________________

Weld Face
M
E
A
S A
U
R
E
 
F
R
O
M
 
T
H
I
S

D
A
T
U
M

E
D
G
E
 
All CSWIP 3.1 candidates should use there nominated
pipe code for all your visual inspection practice, as this
will help them become conversant with the specification
Practice this up and till the end of the day, or as directed
by your course lecturer*
 Constant Voltage Volt/Amp Characteristic*
Small change in voltage
OCV =
Changes in large change in amperage*
arc length*
The self
adjusting arc.
Volts

Amps
External wire Transformer/
feed unit Rectifier

Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
15kg wire spool
Power return Welding gun
cable* assembly
Internal wire drive system* Plain top roller

Half grooved Wire guide*

bottom roller
 Torch body
On/Off switch
Torch head assembly
(Less nozzle)*

Hose port

Nozzles or Spot welding

shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips
Types of metal transfer:
Dip transfer: < 24 Welding volts. Low amps. & C02 Gas.
All positional. Low heat
input. Low deposition rate
Spray transfer: > 24 Welding volts High amps Ar/C02 Mix
Down-hand only. (steels) High heat input. High deposition rate
Pulse transfer: Variable pulses of high current
All positional. Controlled heat input. High deposition rate*
Globular transfer occurs between dip & spray, but is unstable*
1) A Transformer/Rectifier (Constant voltage type)

2) A power and power return cable

3) An Inert, active, or mixed shielding gas (Argon or CO²)

4) Gas hose, flow-meter, & gas regulator

5) MIG torch with hose, liner, diffuser, contact tip & nozzle

6) Wire feed unit with correct drive rolls (Push or Pull)

7) Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter

8) Correct visor & glass, all safety clothing and good extraction*
1) WFS/Amperage 2) OCV & Arc Voltage

3) Wire type & Ø 4) Gas type & flow rate

5) Tip size/condition 6) Roller size & pressure

7) Liner size 8) Inductance settings

9) Insulation/extraction 10) Connections

11) Duty cycle 12) Angles & travel speed*

1) Silica inclusions (Poor inter-run cleaning)

2) Lack of side wall fusion (Primarily with dip transfer)

3) Porosity (From loss of gas shield on site etc)*

Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack

of welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment
The use of low quality wires will cause wire feed problems
Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc*
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

1) Lower skill required 1) Lack of sidewall fusion

2) Easily automated 2) Range of consumables

3) All positional (Dip/Pulse) 3) Loss of gas shield/site

4) Thick/thin materials 4) Complex equipment

5) High productivity (O/F) 5) High ozone levels*

 Welding carriage
Power return
control unit
cable

Power control Carriage assembly

panel with flux hopper
Transformer/
Rectifier

Granulated Reel of wire

flux*
 1. Wire 2. Flux 3. Dilution
SAW with low arc voltage
1
Typical SAW Short arc length 3 2
preparation*

Possible weld metal % composition*

Effect of increased arc voltage 1. Wire 2. Flux 3. Dilution

Long arc length
1
3 2

Change in weld metal composition*

1) A Transformer/Rectifier (Constant voltage type)
2) A power and power return cable
3) A torch head assembly

4) A granulated flux
5) A flux delivery system
6) A flux recovery system

7) Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter

8) Correct safety clothing and good extraction*
1) WFS/Amperage 2) OCV & Arc Voltage

3) Flux type & mesh size 4) Flux condition

5) Wire Ø & condition 6) Wire Specification

7) Flux delivery/recovery 8) Electrode stick-out

9) Insulation/duty cycle 10) Connections

11) Tip size & condition 12) Speed of travel*

1) Lack of fusion (Caused by high levels of arc blow)
2) Solidification cracks (From S pick up from high dilution)
3) Shrinkage cavities (From high depth:width ratio)
4) Porosity (Using damp fluxes, or un-cleaned plates)*
Most welding imperfections in SAW are caused by incorrect
setting of the equipment, using incorrect or wrongly dried
consumables, or welding plates that have not been properly
cleaned. Minor changes in the welding parameters of SAW can
have a major effect on weld composition and weld quality.
Bad cable connections can have a serious effect on changes in
arc length, and thus effect alloying to the weld via the flux*
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

1) Low weld metal costs 1) Restricted in position

2) Easily mechanized 2) Arc blow with DC

3) Low Ozone production 3) Shrinkage cavities (d:w)

4) High productivity (O/F) 4) Penetration control

5) No visible arc light (U/V) 5) Variable compositions*

 Videos
ESAB
“MIG/MAG Welding Steels”
Or equivalent (30 minutes)*
 Videos
Millar
“Submerged Arc Welding”
Or equivalent (20 minutes)*
All those things used up in the production of a weld

Though generally, we refer to those elements that are used in

a specific welding process i.e:

Electrodes, Wires, Fluxes and Gases*

 In MMA/SMAW the only consumables used are short
electrodes, which are covered in a flux coating
This flux coating has many functions and there are
many different types
These functions are not limited too, but include:
1) To aid arc striking 5) To add alloying elements
2) To stabilize the arc 6) To form a protective slag
3) Form a shielding gas 7) To refine solidifying metal
4) To add de-oxidants 8) To control hydrogen content *
 General Shieldin Main :Classification
:Uses :g gas Constituent
:
General CO2 Titania Rutile: E6013
Purpose
TiO2
High quality CO2 Calcium Basic: E7018
work compounds
Pipe root Hydroge Cellulose Cellulosic:
The core wire for most MMA electrodes is of a low quality steel, as this is a cheap
method*runs
of manufacture andnthe steel will be refined during the processE6010
Ground cocoanut shells
of welding
by the refining agents and elements contained in the flux coating*
 Electrical parameters
Electrode efficiency
Toughness 28 & 47 Joules
Electrode
E 5133B
Tensile & yield strength
Flux coating type
Positional capabilities
Low hydrogen potential
(After baking)
Strength Toughness Coating Shown on all electrodes*
Positional capabilities
Flux coating type
Toughness 47 Joules
Electrode

E 46 3 1Ni B

Tensile & yield strength

Any light alloying composition
Electrical parameters & efficiency
Low hydrogen content achievable*
Strength Toughness Coating Shown on all electrodes*
Positional capabilities
Electrode

E 80 18

Tensile strength
(PSI x
1000)
Flux coating &
electrical characteristics*
1: Electrode size Diameter & length*

2: Electrode condition Cracks, chips & concentricity*

3: Electrode specification Correct specification/code*

E 51 33 B
Gases used for TIG:
Argon or Helium or a mixture of these gases*

Helium gas has higher ionization potential than argon and gives
deeper penetration, whilst argon is denser than air and gives good
coverage of the weld area in the down hand position. We would
need 2-3 times the flow rate of helium to get the same coverage
as helium is less dense than air. In the overhead position the
reverse is true. We often mix these gases to get both benefits*

We sometimes use additions of nitrogen when welding some

stainless steels, or copper*
Gases used for MIG: Argon or Helium
Gases used for MAG: CO2 or mixtures of CO2 and Argon*

CO2 : Very good penetration, cannot support spray transfer

produces an unstable arc, with lots of spatter
Argon: Shallow penetration. Very stable arc, with low spatter
We mix both gases in mixture of between 5 – 20% CO2 in
argon to get the benefits of both gases*
For  stainless steels we use argon with a 2% oxygen, this
gives more fluidity to the weld and an improved toe blend*
Wires must be drawn as deposited and are therefore of very high
quality. Electrode wires for MIG are the same as rods for TIG*
The quality of temper and copper coating is also very important.
The copper coating on MIG wires maximises the current pick
up*
Specifications for wires are as per their chemical compositions*
Grades:
Composition + Single, double, and triple de-oxidised wires*
Quality of winding:
Random wound. Layer wound. & Precision layer wound
Wires diameters:
0.6 - >2.4 mm Ø supplied on 1 kg (fine wire) & 15 kg spools*
Consumables for Submerged Arc Welding consist of a
wire and a flux*

The wire is similar to that of solid wire MIG/MAG and is

chosen from a table of chemical compositions*

Fluxes are varied and are classified by their method of

manufacture and composition*
The 2 methods of flux manufacture are:
1) Fused
2) Agglomerated*

Fused fluxes are baked at a high temperature after mixing

and all components are fused together like glass. The slab
is then smashed into very small particles and sifted into
grain sizes*

Agglomerated fluxes are not baked as high as the fused

fluxes and are held together as particles by binding agents.
These fluxes are also sifted into grain sizes*
Fused fluxes: cannot contain certain alloying elements
such as Ferro Manganese, and tend to be used for lower
quality work. These fluxes are non moisture absorbant*

Agglomerated fluxes: contain many alloying elements,

but are prone to moisture absorption. They are used for
higher quality work*

All Submerged Arc Fluxes should be separately and

carefully stored in a dry area*
Fused SAW Fluxes
*
Agglomerated Fluxes
*
Fused:

Baked at high temperature, glossy,hard and black in colour,

cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type*

Agglomerated:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped,
friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements,
moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type*
 Pipe Visual Inspection Form
Page 1 of 3 CSWIP VISUAL INSPECTION PIPE REPORT

Name [Block capitals]____________ Signature_________Pipe Ident#________

Code/Specification used_________Welding Process_______ Joint type______

Welding position__________ Outside  & Thickness_____ Date ________

A B C

C D A

Complete as per plate report form *

Practice observing & reporting using the pipes and forms
provided.
Use your nominated pipe code for all your visual inspections
as this will help you become conversant with the specification.
Practice this up and till the end of the day, or as directed by
your course lecturer*
We use Non Destructive Testing (NDT) when we wish to
assess the integrity of a structure without destroying it
The 4 of the common types of NDT used when assessing
weldments are:

Penetrant T e st i n g.
esting. rt ic le T
t i c P a
Magne
Ultrasonic T e s t i ng *
esting. p h i c T
d i o g r a
Ra
 Procedure

First the work must be cleaned thoroughly, then a

penetrant is applied for a specified time*
Once the contact time has elapsed, the penetrant is
removed and a developer is then applied*
Any penetrant that has been drawn into a crack by
capillary action will be drawn out into the developer*
Two types of penetrants are:
1) Colour contrast 2) Fluorescent Penetrant*
Penetrant
 Method

Apply Penetrant Clean then apply Result*

Developer
 Advantages Disadvantages

1) Low operator skill level 1) Highly clean metal

2) All materials (Non Porous) 2) Surface flaws only

3) Low cost method 3) Extremely messy

4) Simple equipment 4) No permanent record*
 Procedure

First the work must be cleaned and a whitener applied for

contrast. A magnetic flux is then applied by permanent
magnet, electro magnet, or straight current*

A magnetic ink is applied which will concentrate in areas of

flux leakage, as those caused by flaws*

The weld length must be crossed at 90° by the magnetic field*

The types of magnetic media used are:

1) Wet ink 2) Dry powder 3)
Fluorescent ink*
ink
 Method

Contrast paint Magnet & Ink Result*

 Advantages Disadvantages

1) Low operator skill level 1) Fe Magnetic metal only

2) Sub surface flaws 2) De-magnetize after use

3) Relatively cheap 3) Can cause arc strikes #

4) Simple equipment 4) No permanent record*

# When using the straight current prod technique

 Procedure

First the work must be cleaned thoroughly, then a couplant is

applied to increase sound transmission*

A probe is then applied with the correct angle for the weld
preparation and sound waves are transmitted*

Any imperfections will rebound the sound waves causing a

signal to occur on the cathode ray tube*
 Method

Apply Couplant Sound wave Result*

CRT display

Signal rebounded
from Lack of fusion
 Advantages Disadvantages

1) Can find lack of fusion 1) High operator skill

2) Most materials 2) Difficult to interpret

3) No safety requirements 3) Requires calibration

4) Portable/instant results 4) No permanent record*
 Procedure

A film is placed inside a cassette between lead screens.

It is then placed to the rear of the object to be radiographed
A radiographic source, is exposed to the work and film for a
pre-calculated time*

Any imperfections in line with the beam of radiation will be

shown on the film after exposure and development*

The 2 types of radiation used in industrial radiography:

1) X rays (from Cathode Ray Tube)
2) Gamma rays (from a Radioactive
Isotope)*
 Method

Load film Exposure to Radiation Interpret Graph

Radioactive source Developed

Graph
IQI

Film cassette Latent image on the film

 Advantages Disadvantages

1) A permanent record ? 1) High operator skill

2) Most materials 2) Difficult interpretation

3) Assess root pen’ in pipe 3) Lack of sidewall fusion

4) Gamma ray is portable 4) Safety requirements*
 New TWI Video
“Non Destructive Testing”
30 Minutes
Weld Repairs:
Weld repairs can be divided into two specific areas:
1) Production repairs
2) In service repairs*

Production repairs are usually identified by the Welding

Inspector, or NDT operator during the process of inspection,
or evaluation of reports to the code, or applied standard*
 A typical
 
defect is shown below: *
 
 
 
 

 Prior to repair the defect may need to undergo the following:

1)  A defect analysis and report
2) An assessment of defect extremity
3) An excavation procedure  
4) NDT procedures
5)  A welding repair procedure  
6)  Welder approval to the approved repair procedure
7) Any subsequent treatments procedures i.e. PWHT *
Plan View of defect with drilled ends *

Side View of defect excavation*

Completed repair*
NDT confirmation of successful repair:
After the excavation has been filled the weldment should
then be undergo a complete retest using NDT to ensure
no further defects have been introduced by the repair.
NDT may also need to be further applied after any
additional post weld heat treatment has been carried out*
Residual welding stresses are defined as those stresses that
remain inside a material after welding has been carried out

Stresses are caused by the heat of welding, which produces

local expansion and contraction to take place

If a metal was heated & cooled uniformly no stresses would

remain, as expansion & contraction would be uniform

Welding causes only local heating and cooling conditions to

exist, hence some residual stresses to remain in the metal*
Residual stresses can have very complex patterns in
welded constructions.
In simple butt welded plates they may be indicated as
shown below:

Tensile  Tensile 

Compressive 
*
We can say that expansion/contraction has three directions.

Transverse
Plan View
Weld of plate
Longitudinal

End View
of plate

Short transverse
One effect of welding related stresses is distortion
Distortion is the movement of material in one area caused by
expansion and contraction, and local elastic/plastic movement
that misshapes the component*

The various types of distortion produced are caused by the

directions and amount of expansion and contractional stresses
involved, and the ability of the material to resist the stress
without the formation of elastic/plastic strain, or deformation
It is this deformation that produces distortion in a product*
 Transverse
distortion

Longitudinal
distortion

Angular i s t o r ti o n *
D
The volume of weld metal in a joint will also effect the
amount of local expansion and contraction
Hence the more volume of weld metal then the overall
amount of distortion will be higher*
Many methods are used to control the effects of distortion.
Perhaps the best of these is to to pre set the materials to allow
distortion to bring it to its final shape. This method is called
offsetting, or pre-setting*

a) Practical

b) Practical

c) Impractical*
Other forms of distortion control stop the movement of material
from occurring by using such methods as clamping, jigging,
strong backs, and tacking etc*

These methods will reduce the distortion, but will also amass
the maximum amount of residual stresses to exist*

Back-step & balance welding are sequences which may also

be used to control the effects of distortion*
All heat treatments applied to metals are cycles of 3 elements.

1) Heating
2) Soaking
3) Cooling
Temp
2

1 3

Time
Annealing: Used to make metals soft and ductile
For steels, the component is heated above its UCT, or
upper critical temperature, soaked for 1 hour/25mm of
thickness and left in the furnace to cool
Produces a coarse grain structure & low toughness*

Normalising: Used to make steels tough

As for annealing, but the steel is removed from the

furnace after soaking to cool in still air
Produces a fine grain structure with good toughness*
Hardening: Used to make some steels harder
Used to increase the hardness of some plain carbon &
alloy steels. Plain carbon > 0.3%
The cycle is the same as previously but the cooling is
rapid i.e. Quenched in water, oil, but sometimes air*

Tempering: Used after hardening to balance the

properties of Toughness & Hardness
The temperature range is from 220 – 723 °C
The cooling part of the cycle should not be too rapid,
but over heating will over temper the steel*
PWHT: Used after welding to release residual stresses,
caused by welding operations*

Force/Stress required to
induce plastic strain*
Stress
Y

The effect of heat

on the position of
the yield point*
Strain
By heating the steel, the yield point is suppressed/reduced relieving
residual stresses as plastic strain at a much lower level of stress*
Pre-Heating: Used mainly on steels to retard the cooling
rate of a hardenable steel and reduce the
hardening effect (Martensite formation)
Is also used to help diffusion of Hydrogen
from the HAZ of hardenable steels to avoid
hydrogen cracking. Typically < 350 °C
Is also used to produce a more uniform rate
of cooling, and control distortion, or effects
of high contractional strains*
*
Name Pictorial view Uses

Neutral Fusion welding most

metals. Flame temp >
3,200 °C*
Oxidising Bronze Welding*
Hard surfacing &
Carburising fusion & Brazing
Aluminium & alloys*
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with high temperature iron
(>1100  C) to produce Fe3 O4 by exothermic reaction.
This dross is then removed by the pressure of the oxygen jet*
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the pre-heating
flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
Acetylene. Hydrogen. Propane. Etc*
By adding Iron powder to the flame we are able to cut most
metals “Iron Powder Injection”*

The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will cause

hardening in low alloy, and medium, or high C steels They
are thus pre-heated to avoid the hardening effect*
Slightly rounded top edge caused
by too close a nozzle gap

The “Kerf”
50mm

Flutes
MMA electrodes are specially produced for cutting and gouging.
Oxy/Arc and Arc/Air are arc cutting process that produce lots of
fume and arc air produce a high noise level. All these processes
require good extraction, and ear protection is vital for arc/air
Both oxy arc and arc air use special types of electrodes and gas
supplies, which will be described by the course lecturer*
Safety is the responsibility everyone.
As respected officers, it is the duty of all welding inspectors
to ensure that safe working practices are strictly followed.

Safety in welding can be divided into several areas, some of

which are as follows:
(Areas to be expanded briefly by the lecturer/presenter)
1) Welding/cutting process safety.*
2) Electrical safety.*
3) Welding fumes & gases. Use & storage of gases.*
4) Safe use of lifting equipment.*
5) Safe use of hand tools and grinding machines.*
 Careful consideration should be given to safety hazards
when using a particular welding process. This may include:*

1) The hazards of infra red and/or ultra violet light

2) The hazards of heat, burns and fire
3) The hazards of toxic and non toxic gases from process,
coatings, or purging, and gases stored at high pressure
4) The hazards of working with high voltages & currents
5) The hazards of working in confined spaces*
Careful consideration should be given to safety when
using gas, or arc cutting systems by:*
1) Removing any combustible materials from the area
2) Checking all containers to be cut are fume free and have
a Permit to Work
3) Providing ventilation and extraction where required
4) Ensuring good gas safety is being practised
5) Keeping oil and grease away from oxygen
6) Using ear defenders when arc air cutting
Safe working with electrical power is mostly common sense.
Ensure that insulation is used where required and that cables
and connections are in good condition. (Check the duty cycle)*

Gases should be stored separately, and cylinders should be

secured when used in the vertical position, especially oxygen*

Exposure to dangerous welding fumes and gases from electrodes,

plating, i.e.ozone, nitrous oxide, phosgene, cadmium,
beryllium are to name just a few. Always use
extraction/breathing systems. If in any doubt, stop the work*
From the points that have been covered in the
safety lecture, and/or the Video, complete the
safety check list exercise in your course text*
“Weldability” is a term used in welding engineering to describe
the ease of which a material can be welded by the common
welding processes and still retain the properties for which it
was designed*

If we say that a material has limited weldability, it means

that we need to take special measures to ensure that the
properties as required are maintained*

Most materials are weldable with certain processes.

The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon content
& alloying, though most steels have a degree of weldability*
weldability
1) Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking in Low Alloy
Steels
2) Hydrogen weld metal cracking in Micro Alloy
Steels
3)  Solidification cracking in Ferritic steels
4)   Lamellar tearing in Ferritic steels
5) Inter-granular corrosion in Stainless Steels*
 Steels are classified into groups as follows:*

Plain Carbon Steels:*

1) Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon*

2) Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon*

3) High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon*

Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon as main alloying
elements, traces of Mn Si Al S & P may also be present*
An Alloy steel is one that contains more than Iron & Carbon
as a main alloying elements*

Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups:*

Low Alloy Steels< 7% extra alloying elements*

High Alloy Steels> 7% extra alloying elements*

The following basic foundation information on metallurgy
will not form any part of your CSWIP examination*
A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the
ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution*
The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and
does not replace it in the atomic structure, but fits between it*

Iron atoms Carbon atoms*

Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

depending on the temperature. This is an important feature*
At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this*

α Alpha iron
This structure occurs below 723 °C and is
body centred, or BCC in structure
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon

Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron*

*

Compressed representation could appear like this

At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this*

γ Gamma iron
This structure occurs above the UCT in
Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in structure.
It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon

Also called Austenite or FCC iron*

*

Compressed representation could appear like this

If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in equilibrium, then
exact reverse atomic changes take place*

If a steel that contains more than 0.3% Carbon is cooled quickly,

then the carbon does not have time to diffuse out of solution,
hence trapping the carbon in the BCC form of iron.
This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or tetragon*

This supersaturated solution is called Martensite and is the

hardest structure that can be produced in steels*
If some steels are cooled quickly their structure looks like this*

Martensite can be defined as:

A supersaturated solution of carbon in
BCT iron (Body Centred Tetragonal)
It is the hardest structure we can produce
in steels*

*
Compressed representation could appear like this
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*

Ferrite:  Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%*

Austenite:  High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%*

Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is produced

by rapid cooling from the Austenite phase
It mainly occurs below 300 °C*
The atomic structures of plain carbon steels have been briefly
identified and explained in this lecture*

To summarize the effect of increasing the hardness of steels by

thermal treatment, it can be said that the formation of
Martensite is caused by the entrapment of carbon in solution,
produced by rapid cooling from temperatures above the Upper
Critical*
In plain carbon steels there must be sufficient carbon to trap.
In low alloy steels however, the alloying elements play a
significant part in the thermal hardening of steels*
Crack type: H² HAZ & weld metal cracking
Location: a. HAZ (Longitudinal)
b. Weld metal (Transverse)
Steel types: a. All hardenable steels including:
b. HSLA steels
c. Quench & Tempered steels
Microstructure: Martensite*

Occurs when:
Hydrogen is above 15 ml/100 gm weld metal
Hardness is above 350 VPN 
Stress is greater than 0.5 of the yield stress 
Temperature is below 300 ºC*
Cellulosic electrodes produce
hydrogen as a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in a
long, or unstable arc

Hydrogen produced from

oil, or paint on plate Hydrogen crack

H2 H2

Martensite forms from γ

H2 diffuses to γ in HAZ*
HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels that
derive their high strength from finite alloying*

Typically the level of alloying is in the region of 0.05% and

elements such as vanadium molybdenum and titanium. are
used. It would be impossible to match this micro alloying in
the electrode due to the effect of losses across an electric arc*
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to the
strength of the plate, and so a simple way of matching weld
strength must be found and utilised*
To find a simple method we would need to look at the effect of
increasing carbon content on the properties of iron*
Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength, but will
also increase greatly the formation of martensite in the weld.
This may now produce H2 Cracks across weld*

0.83 % Carbon (Eutectoid)*

Hardness
Tensile Strength

Ductility

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
H2 HAZ Cracks Transverse Weld
in Alloy steels* Cracks in HSLA Steels*
Low ductility weld metal

Longitudinal contractional strain

1) Maintain calculated preheats, and never allow the inter-
pass temperature to go below the pre-heat value*
2) Use Low Hydrogen processes with short arcs & ensure
consumables are correctly baked & stored as required*
3) If using a cellulosic E 6010 for the root run, insert the
“Hot pass” as soon as possible. (Before HAZ < 300 °C)*
4) Remove any paint, oil or moisture from the plate or pipe*
5) Carry out any specified PWHT as soon as possible*
6) Avoid any restraint, and use high ductility weld metal*
Crack type: Solidification cracking
Location: Weld centre (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorus steels.
Microstructure: Columnar grains
In direction of solidification*

Occurs when:
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains. High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the
weld metal*
1) The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design*
2) Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution*
3) Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion*
4) As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should
be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution*
5) Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise
restraint*
 Liquid Iron Sulphide films

Solidification crack

Contractional strain
Add Manganese to weld metal *
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
form between solidified grains

Cohesion and strength

between grains remains

Contractional strain
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation*

Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in the
base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal.
There is high restraint on the work*
 Restraint

Lamellar tear
High contractional strains
 Plate to be tested*
Full fusion compound
Through thickness
welded cruciform joint*
tensile test*

Contractional strain* Machined

test piece*

The test piece is machined from the cruciform joint and

placed under tension. If Lamellar tearing was present it
would fail at a low value*
Assessment of susceptibility to Lamellar Tearing:
• Carry out through thickness tensile test
• Carry out cruciform welded tensile test
• Carry out Ultra-sonic testing
• Carry out penetrant testing of plate edges
• Carry out full chemical analysis (S < 0.05%)*
Methods of avoiding Lamellar Tearing:*

1) Avoid restraint*
2) Use controlled low sulfur plate *
3) Grind out surface and butter *

4) Change joint design *

5) Use a forged T piece (Critical Applications)*
 Re-design weld*

Grind and infill with

ductile weld metal*
Control restraint*

For critical work a forged

T piece may be used*

Forged T Piece
Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion
Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*
Occurs when:
An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation
of chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld.
This depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains
low in chromium oxide which is what produces the
corrosion resisting effect of stainless steels.
If left untreated corrosion and failure will be rapid*
During the welding of stainless steels, a small grain area in the
HAZ, parallel to the weld will form chromium carbide at the
grain boundaries. This depletes this grain of the corrosion
resisting chrome oxide
We say that the steel has become “Sensitised” or has become
sensitive to corrosion*
1) Use Stabilised Stainless Steels*
2) Use Low Carbon Stainless Steels ( Below .04%)*

3) A sensitised Stainless Steel may be de-sensitised by

heating it to above 1100 °C where the Chrome
carbide will be dissolved. The steel is normally
quenched from this temperature to stop re-
association*
 WIS 5 E Only
Attempt the end of course Multi Choice question paper
answering 30 questions
Time allowed 30 minutes
Attempt the specific question paper answering 4 from 6
questions
Time allowed 1 hour
 WIS 5 Only

Practice observing & reporting using the pipes or

plates and forms provided
Use your nominated pipe code for all your visual
inspections.
Practice this up and till the end of the day, or as
directed by your course lecturer*