Digital Electronic

Principles
 Contents:
• Introduction
• Number System
• Conversion of Number System
• Boolean Algebra
• Logic Gates
• De Morgan’s Theorem
• Simplification of Boolean Expression
• Logic Gate Circuits
• Applications of Digital Circuits
Objectives:
This chapter covers:
• Fundamentals of digital electronics
• number systems,
• binary codes,
• logic gates and
• applications of digital circuits.

• History of digital systems

• Discuss the number system and the conversion from binary to decimal.
• Followed by an analysis of Boolean algebra and its laws, supplemented with
relevant examples.
• De Morgan’s theorem
• Logic gate circuits
• The chapter ends with a brief analysis of the real-life applications of digital
circuits.
 INTRODUCTION:
 The journey of digital electronics started in the year 1946 with the digital
computer using vacuum tube technology.
 The term “digit” is derived from the counting operation of the computer.
 The twenty-first century is of the digital world.
 Modern computers consist of digital components, starting from
microprocessors to all other peripheral components.
 A binary digital circuit operates in two modes/states: ON state [1 (one)] and
OFF state [0 (zero)]. These states are called binary states.
 These binary digits are called bits.
 In the binary digital world the logic lies between these two states.
This makes the digital states discrete in nature, whereas the analog
states are continuous.
Conception of Digital Logic:
• Digital logic can be of two different types—
• positive logic system and
• negative logic system.

• Generally ,the digital circuits are connected with a dc supply battery (typically 5
V) and a ground terminal of 0 V.

• If the 5 V refers to logic 1 or ON state and the ground 0 V refers to logic 0 or OFF
state, the logic is referred to as positive logic.

• On the contrary, if 5 V referrers to logic 0 and ground 0 V referrers to logic 1, then

this logic is called negative logic.
Number System:
• The number system digits occupy certain relative positions having their
relative positional significance.
• The left-most digit is called the most significant digit (MSD) and the
right-most digit is called the lowest significant digit (LSD).
• Number systems are classified on the basis of radix/base, as shown in
Table 1.
Classification of number systems:
CONVERSION OF NUMBER SYSTEM:

• Conversion from one number system to another is an important

aspect in digital electronics
• Conversion from binary to decimal, decimal to binary, decimal to
octal, decimal to hexadecimal, etc.
• Representation of a number in a system with base (radix) N may only
consist of digits that are less than N.
• The base or radix of these number systems depends on the number
of digit present in each number system.
• The binary system contains 0 and 1, so its base is 2.
• The decimal base is 10 and the hexadecimal base is 16.
 Binary to Decimal:
• Conversion from binary to decimal using decimal arithmetic is accomplished by
simply summing the powers of 2 corresponding to the 1’s in the binary number.

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Decimal to Binary:
 Conversion from decimal to binary using decimal arithmetic is
accomplished by repeated division of the decimal number by two.
 After each division the remainder is the next bit of the binary
number starting from the least significant.
Number System Conversions:
Number System Conversions:
Table 2 Conversion of decimal to hexadecimal to octal to binary:
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
• The working principle of the digital circuit is guided by Boolean algebra.
• Boolean algebra functions through addition, subtraction and its five basic laws.
1. Addition:
• Boolean addition uses the addition process with binary numbers—0’s and 1’s.
• Various combinations of binary addition are shown in Table 3.
• The general form of addition of two binary numbers, say A and B produce a sum (S ) and a
carry (Cy) as shown here.
Procedure of Binary Addition:
Procedure of Binary Addition:
2. Subtraction :
 Boolean subtraction binary numbers—0’s and 1’s, is shown in Table 4.
 The general form of subtraction of two binary numbers A and B
produce a difference (D) and a borrow, as shown here.

Table 4 Binary subtraction

Example of Binary Subtraction:
 Basic Boolean Laws:
• Every law has two expressions—(a) and
(b).
• This is known as duality.
• These are obtained by changing every
• AND (.) to OR ();
• every OR () to AND (.); and
• all 1’s to 0’s and vice-versa.
• It has become conventional to drop (.)
—the AND symbol, i.e., A.B is written
as AB.
• Some of the very important laws are :
LOGIC GATES:
 The basic elements of digital circuits are logic gates.

 Logic circuits are generally designed with BJT, FET and CMOS
circuits having many inputs and a single output.

 The output will be either logic high (1) or logic low (0)
depending on the combination of input logic high and low.
A B Z
off off off
off on off
on off off
on on on

A B Z
off off off
off on on
on off on
on on on
LOGIC GATES contd …
The functional behaviour of a logic gate is realized by the three processes, as explained in the
following sections.
1. Truth Table:
 Truth table is a prescribed specification table that explains the input-output relation for all
possible combination of inputs.
2. Logic Equation:
 In logic equations, the output is expressed in terms of input according to the truth table.
 Logic equations are generally unique as truth tables vary from logic to logic.
3. Timing Diagram:
 Timing diagram of a logic gate indicates the variation of the output waveform with respect to
the input waveform.
 It is a pictorial representation of the time-varying input and output of the logic gate.
AND Gate:
• The AND gate has two or more inputs. Its output is logic high (1) only when both the
inputs are at logic high (1).
• The truth table of an AND gate is shown in Table 5 and logic symbol is shown in Fig. 1

Table 5 Truth table of AND logic

Fig. 1 Logic symbol for AND gate

 OR Gate:
• The OR gate is a two or more input logic gate. Its output is logic high (1) if any of the
inputs are high (1).
• The truth table of an OR gate is shown in Table 6 and logic symbol is shown in Fig. 2.

Table 6 Truth table of OR logic

Fig. 2 Logic symbol for OR gate

NOT Gate:
 The NOT gate is a single input and single output gate, which performs a basic logical
inversion/complementation 0peration.
 The truth table of a NOT gate is shown in Table 7 and the logic symbol is shown in
Fig. 3.

Table 7 Truth table of NOT logic

Fig. 3 Logic symbol for NOT gate

 NAND Gate:
• The NAND gate is a two or more input logic gate. Its output is logic low (0) only when
both the inputs are at logic (1).
• The truth table of a NAND gate is shown in Table 8 and logic symbol is shown in Fig. 4.

Table 8 Truth table of NAND logic

Fig. 4 Logic symbol for NAND gate

NOR Gate:
• The NOR gate is a two or more input logic gate. Its output is logic high (1) both the
inputs are at logic low (0).
• The truth table of a NOR gate is shown in the Table 9 and the logic symbol is shown
in Fig. 5.

Table 9 Truth table of NOR logic

Fig. 5 Logic symbol for NOR gate

XOR Gate:
• XOR gate is a two or more input logic gate. Its output is logic high (1) if only one of the
input is at logic high. The truth table of a
XOR gate is shown in Table 10 and the logic symbol is shown in Fig. 6.

Table 10 Truth table of XOR logic

Fig. 6 Logic symbol for XOR gate

XNOR Gate:
• XNOR gate is a two or more input logic gate. Its output is logic high (1) if both the
inputs are either logic high or logic low.
• The truth table of XNOR gate is shown in Table 11 and the logic symbol is shown in
Fig. 7.

Table 11 Truth table of XNOR logic

Fig. 7 Logic symbol for XNOR gate