SCIENTIFIC

MEASUREMENTS
LESSON 2
OBJECTIVES
• Identify the number of significant digits in a
given measurement.
• Round off calculations to the proper
number of significant digits.
• Convert numbers to scientific notation and
vice versa.
• Solve problems involving numbers written
in scientific notation.
• Solve conversion problems.
 An accurate measurement is also necessary in conducting
investigations. It is the basis of assessing results in an experiment. To
have the same interpretations of these results, a standard unit is
necessary. So, scientists around the world agree to use the revised
metric system called the International System of Units or the SI (from
the French Sytème Internationale d'Unités). This system was proposed
by the General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1960. Many
countries, including the Philippines, have already adopted the use of the
metric system for SI units.
The other system used is called the English system. Some of the
units in this system are miles, yards, pounds, gallons, cups, pints, and
tablespoons. The measuring devices for these units may be inconsistent
and may provide inaccurate results. For instance, the size of your spoon
may be different from those used in other households; so, it will give a
different amount. Measurements obtained from this system vary
depending on where the people live, as well as the quality of the
measuring devices they use.
 In comparison, the use of the metric system is easy and
convenient. It uses prefixes equivalent to powers of 10. The
seven SI base units listed in table 1.5 are based on the
fundamental quantities. These are physical quantities that
cannot be expressed further in terms of other quantities.
Other SI units can be derived from the seven SI base units.
Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. This term is often
used interchangeably with weight. However, mass and weight
are different quantities. Weight is the measure of the force
exerted by gravity on an object. The mass of an object is
constant regardless of the place, but its weight may vary if there
is a change in gravity. For example, the weight of an object in the
moon is different from its weight on Earth. Figure 1.15 shows the
instruments used to measure the mass of an object. Mass is one
of the fundamental quantities. Its SI standard unit is the kilogram.
Length
Length is the measurement of how long something is or
how long is the distance from one point to another. Its SI
unit is the meter. Units to be used vary depending on how
long or short is the object to be measured, but these are
still based on the meter. Kilometer can be used to express
longer distances or lengths, and centimeter can be used to
express shorter lengths.
Volume
Volume is defined as the amount of space occupied by
an object. The SI standard unit of volume is the cubic meter
(m3) or the cubic centimeter (cm3). Another common unit of
volume is the liter (1) or milliliter (mL). One cubic
centimeter is equal to one milliliter. One cubic meter is
equal to 1.000 liters.
Different methods are used in determining the volume of
solids, liquids, and gases. For solids with regular shapes
(exact shape) such as a cube, their volume can be
computed using the formula

Vcube=s3 Equation 1.1

(where s = side of the cube)
 To solve for the volumes of the rectangular
solid and the cylinder, use the given formulas:

Vrectangle = lwh Equation 1.2

(where l= length; w = width; h = height)

Vcylinder = πr2h Equation 1.3

(where π (pi) = 3.14; r = radius; h = height)
 To measure the volume of a small solid with an irregular shape,
such as a stone, use the water displacement method. Figure 1.17
shows the steps of determining the volume using the water
displacement method.

The volume of liquids can be determined easily using an

apparatus such as a graduated cylinder. Gases, on the other hand,
do not have a fixed volume because the particles are very far from
one another. Gas particles are easier to compress than solids and
liquids.
Density
Density is defined as the mass of an object per unit
volume. It can be computed using the formula

D= Equation 1.4
(where D=density; m=mass; v=volume)

For example, you want to determine the density of a

stone with a mass of 8 grams (g). Because the object has
an irregular shape, you must perform the water
displacement method to determine its volume. If the
computed volume of the stone is 5 ml, calculate the density
of the stone.
Given: mass of the stone= 8 g
volume of the stone= 5 mL

Solution: D= 𝒎/𝒗
D= 8g/5 mL

Answer: D= 1.6 g/mL (about 2 g/mL)

Density can also be used to determine if a certain object

will float or sink in water. If the density of an object is less
than the density of water, which is 1.00 g/ml., then that
object will float. If the density of the object is greater than
the density of water, then it will sink. The computed density
of the stone is 2 g/ml; so, it will sink.
Temperature

Temperature refers to the hotness or coldness of an

object. It can be measured using a thermometer (figure
1.18). The standard SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin.
However, there are other two scales used for temperature:
the degree Celsius (C) and the degree Fahrenheit (°F).
Table 1.6 shows the prefixes that can be added to the
names of the S1 base units. These prefixes represent
quantities that are smaller or larger than the base unit. For
example, the prefix milli-, which is equivalent to 10-3
(1/1000 or 0.001) has a smaller prefix value than the prefix
kilo-, which is equivalent to 103 or 1000.
 Prefix Symbol Exponential Factor Value
Tera T 1012 1 000 000 000 000
Giga G 109 1 000 000 000
Mega M 106 1 000 000
Kilo K 103 1 000
Hecto h 102 100
Deka da 101 10
Base units: gram, liter, meter 100 1
Deci d 10-1 0.1
Centi c 10-2 0.01
Milli m 10-3 0.001
Micro µ 10-6 0.000 001
Nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001
Pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
Table 1.6 Some prefixes used in SI Units
 The SI base quantities can be combined, forming
derived quantities. Units used to measure these derived
quantities are called derived units. These units are
obtained by either multiplying or dividing the base units.
Checkpoint
1. What are the seven fundamental
quantities and their basic units?
2. Differentiate fundamental quantities
from derived quantities.
Accuracy and Precision

In an experiment, you usually measure something

several times and the results can usually vary. Any reported
measurement can be useful unless its error or degree of
uncertainty is indicated. The two factors that cause such
uncertainties are the systematic error and the random error.
Systematic error is caused by the limitation of the
measuring instrument used or the skill of the person
conducting the measurements. Random error is caused by
the unknown and unpredictable changes in the instrument
or in the environmental conditions.
 Such errors limit the accuracy and precision of
measurements. Accuracy refers to the closeness of the
measurement to the accepted or true value of the
measured quantity. Precision is the closeness of the
repeated measurements of the same measured quantity
with one another. Precise measurements do not
necessarily mean that they are accurate. To explain further,
refer to figure 1.19
 The experimenter must know how to use the
instruments properly to lessen the systematic error and to
ensure the accuracy of his or her measurements.
Measuring instruments must also be calibrated regularly so
that they ensure good results every time.
The accuracy of measurements obtained in an
experiment can be compared with the accepted or true
value by calculating the percentage error. The percentage
error can be computed using the formula

Percentage Error=
 For example, in your experiment, the computed
average mass of the unknown metal bar weight is 14.90 g.
The true mass of the metal bar weight is 15.00 g. Using the
formula, the percentage error is

Percentage Error=

= 0.67 %

The computed percentage error, 0.67%, signifies that

the experimental value is close to the accepted value.
Checkpoint
1. What is accuracy? How about
precision?
2. If the measurement is precise, is
it also accurate? Explain your
answer.
Significant Figures

As mentioned, errors obtained in measurements are

caused by systematic or random errors. Uncertainty always
exists in any measurement. So, indicating the margin of
error is necessary. It is important to indicate the significant
figures, or the numbers that are certain and meaningful,
with the inclusion of one digit that is uncertain or estimated.
For instance, when you are measuring the length of a
pencil using your ruler, you may see that, for example, its
length is between 7.5 and 7.6 cm (figure 1.20). The
hundredths place may be uncertain, and you will just make
an estimate. That is why you may add ±0.01 in the reading.
 Likewise, if you are measuring the mass of a
substance, use an analytical balance as shown in figure
1.21. This instrument provides a reading of up to four
decimal places containing four significant figures.
In our measurements for every experiment, we need to
consider the significant figures. The following rules will help
you in determining the significant figures:
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
Examples: 143 g – has three significant figures
987 654 m – has six significant figures
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
Examples: 2 005L – has four significant figures
101kg – has three significant figures
3. If a measurement is less than 1, zeros placed before all
nonzero digits are not significant.
These zeros indicate only the placement of the decimal
point.

Examples: 0.001234 m – has four significant figures

0.0234 kg – has three significant figures

Note: To remember this rule easily, think of an arrow. It

will pass through all the zeros and stops when it hits a
nonzero digit; so, all the numbers next to it are significant.
4. If a measurement is greater than 1, zeros placed after the
decimal point are significant.
Examples: 2:00 s - has three significant figures
750.00 km - has five significant figures

5. Zeros next to nonzero digits without a decimal point are

called trailing zeros. These zeros may or may not be significant.
Examples: 9.000 g - has one, two, three, or four significant
figures
9000 g or 9 x 103 g - has one significant figure
or 9.0 x 103 g - has two significant figures
or 9.00 x 103 g - has three significant figures
or 9.00 x 103 g - has four significant figures
9000.0 g - has five significant figures
 Your knowledge about significant figures will help you in
carrying out computations. The rules are summarized here:
1. In addition and subtraction, the final answer should have
the least number of digits after the decimal point as
compared to the numbers in the given
Example: Add 23.456 g and 2.78 g.
Steps
a. Align the decimal points of the given numbers.
23.4568 g
+ 2.780 g
b. Add the numbers.
23.456 g
+ 2.780 g
26.236 g
c. Identify the number of digits after the decimal places of
the addends.

23.456 g → has three digits after the decimal point

+ 2.780 g → has two digits after the decimal point (least number of digits)
26.236 g → round off your final answer with the least number of
digits after the decimal point

Final answer: 26.24 g

2. In multiplication and division, express your final answer with the
least number of significant numbers as compared with the given.
Example: Multiply 87.32 m by 1.78 m.
Steps:
a. Multiply the given numbers.
(87.32 m) (1.78 m) = 155.4296 m2

b. Identify the number of significant figures for each given.

87.32 m → four significant figures
1.78 m → three significant figures
155.4296 m² → round off your final answer with the least number
of significant figures

Answer = 155 m²
 However, exact numbers attained from definitions or by
counting the number of objects is not used as the basis for
determining the significant figures.
Example: 1 lb 453.592 g (Both have an infinite number of
significant figures.)
Likewise, if the length of one metal stick is 2.67 m and
there are six metal sticks, then

not used as basis to determine the number of significant figures

(2.67 m) (6)= 16.02 m or 16.0 m (has three significant figures)

has three significant figures

Checkpoint
1. How many significant figures are there in
0.01010?
2. What is the product if 15.76 multiplied by
0.034? Express your answer with the correct
number of significant figures.
3. What is the difference of 18.987 and 5.34?
Express your answer with the correct number of
significant figures.
Scientific Notation
When we deal with numbers that are too small or too
large, there is a chance that we miss or add zeros.
For example, the Avogadro's number is approximately
equal to
602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles or a
wavelength that is equal to 0.00000055 nm.
To avoid these kinds of mistakes, we express these
numbers in scientific notation. This is written as
N x 10n where N = number greater than 1 but less than
10
n = the exponent, a negative or positive integer
 The exponent (n) tells us the number of times
the decimal point will be moved to either the left or
the right. If the decimal point will be moved from
the left to the right, the exponent is negative. If the
decimal point will be moved from the right to the
left, the exponent is positive.
Suppose you will express the value of
Avogadro's number in scientific notation. Because
this number is greater than 1. the decimal point is
at the right of the last zero. Move the decimal point
to the left until there is only one nonzero digit to
the left of the decimal point.
 If you will express a number smaller than 1, such as the
given wavelength of 0.00000055 nm. move the decimal
point to the right until there is only one number at the left
side of the decimal point.
 In expressing scientific notation to its standard form, consider the
following

1. If the given has a positive exponent, move the decimal point from the
left to the right depending on the value of the exponent.

Example:
7.7 x 107 Move the decimal point to the right seven times.
Answer: 770 000 00

2. If the given has a negative exponent, move the decimal point from
the right to the left.

Example:
8.88 x 10-4 Move the decimal point to the left four times.

Answer: 0.000 888

Checkpoint
1. Convert 0.0963 to scientific notation.

2. Convert 2.1 x 10-5 to standard form.

3. How will you convert a number from

the standard form to scientific
notation and vice versa?
Conversion of Units
Most of the time, measurements of the same
quantity are expressed in different units. For example,
the computed mass is 3 500 g or 3.5 kg. The base unit
gram can be converted to another unit containing a
prefix, kilo-. In doing so, you need to consider the
relationship of the units. In table 1.6, you can see the
prefixes that can be added to the units in the metric
system. The prefixes above the base unit express large
numbers, as compared to the prefixes below the base
unit. Two methods can be used in converting units in
the metric system: moving the decimal points and using
the factor label method.
By Moving the Decimal Points
This method can be used in the metric system only using the
Greek prefixes. See these examples.

1. Convert 14 cg to kg.
Using table 1.6, count the number of times you need to
move the decimal point from the given prefix to the desired
prefix. In this case, you need to move the decimal point five
times from centi- to kilo-. If the conversion is from a smaller
prefix value to a larger prefix value, move the decimal point from
the right to the left.

Move the decimal point to the left his times14 cg

or 0.00014 kg
2. Convert 56 kg to cg.
If the conversion is from a larger prefix
value to a smaller prefix value, move the
decimal point from the left to the right. Refer
again to table 1.6.

Move the decimal point to the right five times 56

kg
or 5 600 000 cg
By the Factor-label Method
In the factor-label method, the conversion factor will be
established so that the given unit will be canceled for the
desired unit:
given unit x
Examples:
1. Convert 14 cg to kg.
Using the table 1.6, the conversion factors are
1 gram = 100 cg 14cg x
1 kg = 1000 g
2. Convert 56 kg to cg.

56 kg x

Although the metric system has now been adopted

worldwide, some countries still use the English system.
Units can be converted from the metric to the English
system, and vice versa. Table 1.8 shows some of the
conversion factors between the English and the metric
system.
Table 1.8 Some Of The Conversion Factors Between The English And The Metric System.

English Metric
Length
1 inch (in) 25. 4 mm
1 foot (ft) 0.3048 m
1 yard (yd) 0.9144 m
1 mile (mi) 1.609344 km
Volume
1 cubic inch (ci) 16.387064 cm3
1 gallon (gal) 3.78541 L
1 fluid ounce (oz) 0.0295735 L
Mass
1 pound 0.453924 kg
 Examples:
1. Convert 3 500 km to mi
From table 1.8, the conversion factor is 1 mi 1.609344 km.
Using the factor-label method:
3500km x
2. Convert 62.5 kg to pounds.
Conversion factor: 1 lb = 0.453924 kg
62.5 kg x
3. A man is walking with a speed of 5 kilometers per hour
(km/h). What is his speed in m/s?
Conversion: 1 km = 1000 m
1 h=3600 s
5
Table 1.9 Different Units Of Temperature And Their Conversion Formulas

From To Formula

Celsius Fahrenheit

Celsius Kelvin

Fahrenheit Celsius
Checkpoint
Convert the following measurements.
1. 380 m = _____ km
2. 86 500 mm = _____ hm
3. 27 g = _____ kg