NEURO ANATOMI

Bag.Neurologi FK UNDIP
Semarang
ANATOMIS SIST SARAF
Brain and Cranial Nerves
 An adult brain weighs between 1.35 and 1.4
kilograms (kg) (around 3 pounds) and has a volume
of about 1200 cubic centimeters (cc).
 Brain size is not directly correlated with intelligence
 It is not the physical size of the brain that determines
intelligence—it is the number of active synapses.

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The Brain’s 4 Major Regions
 Cerebrum, the diencephalon, the brainstem, and the
cerebellum.
 The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called the
left and right cerebral hemispheres.
 Each hemisphere is subdivided into 4 functional areas
called lobes.
 Outer surface of an adult brain exhibits folds called
gyri (gyrus) and shallow depressions between those
folds called sulci (sulcus).
 The brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.

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 Functional Regions of the
Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral cortex
• Thin layer of gray matter that constitutes the
outermost portion of cerebrum
• Contains 75% of all neurons in the nervous system
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Central sulcus
Motor areas involved with the control
Sensory areas involved with
of voluntary muscles
cutaneous and other senses

Concentration, planning,
problem solving

Frontal eye field

Parietal lobe
Auditory area
Sensory speech area
Front lobe ( Wernicke’s area)

Occipital lobe
Motor speech area
(Broca’s area) Combining
visual images,
visual recognition
Lateral sulcus
of objects
Visual area
Interpretation of auditory patterns
Cerebellum
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Temporal lobe Brainstem
Functions of the Cerebral Lobes

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 The Brain’s 4 Major Regions
 Prosencephalon (forebrain)
 Telencephalon: cerebrum
 Diencephalon: epithalamus, thalamus,hypothalamus
 Mesencephalon (midbrain)
 Mesencephalon: cerebral peduncles, colliculi
 Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
 Metencephalon: pons, cerebellum
 Myelencephalon: medulla oblongata

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Organization of Brain Tissue
 Gray matter:
 motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, axon
terminals
 unmyelinated axons.
 White matter:
 composed primarily of myelinated axons.
 During brain development, an outer, superficial
region of gray matter forms from migrating
peripheral neurons.
 External sheets of gray matter, called the cortex,
cover the surface of most of the adult brain (the
cerebrum and the cerebellum).

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Organization of Brain Tissue
 White matter lies deep to the gray matter of the
cortex.
 Within the masses of white matter:
 discrete innermost clusters of gray matter called cerebral
nuclei (or basal nuclei).
 are oval, spherical, or sometimes irregularly shaped clusters
of neuron cell bodies.

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Support and Protection of the
Brain
 The brain is protected and isolated by
multiple structures:
 bony cranium
 Meninges:
 Protective connective tissue membranes
 surround and partition portions of the brain.
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 acts as a cushioning fluid.
 Blood-brain barrier:
 prevents entry of harmful materials from the
bloodstream.

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Cranial Meninges
 Three dense regular connective tissue layers:
 separate the soft tissue of the brain from the bones of the
cranium.
 Enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the brain.
 Contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.
 Parts of the cranial meninges form some of the veins that
drain blood from the brain.
 From superficial to deep, the cranial meninges are
the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater.

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Dura Mater
 Tough membrane composed of two fibrous layers.
 Strongest of the meninges.
 Dura mater is composed of two layers.
 periosteal layer, the more superficial layer, attaches to the
periosteum of the cranial bones
 meningeal layer lies deep to the periosteal layer
 The meningeal layer is usually fused to the periosteal
layer
 Exception: in specific areas where the two layers separate to
form large, blood-filled spaces called dural venous sinuses.

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Arachnoid
 Also called the arachnoid mater or the arachnoid
membrane.
 Lies immediately internal to the dura mater.
 Partially composed of a delicate web of collagen and
elastic fibers, termed the arachnoid trabeculae.
 Between the arachnoid and the overlying dura mater
is the subdural space.
 Immediately deep to the arachnoid is the
subarachnoid space.

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Pia Mater
 The innermost of the cranial meninges.
 Thin layer of delicate connective tissue that tightly
adheres to the brain and follows every contour of the
brain surface.

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Cranial Dural Septa
 The meningeal layer of the dura mater extends as
flat partitions (septa) deep into the cranial cavity;
 at four locations
 called cranial dural septa.
 Membranous partitions separate specific parts of the
brain and provide additional stabilization and support
to the entire brain.
 falx cerebri
 tentorium cerebelli
 falx cerebelli
 diaphragma sellae

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Brain Ventricles
 Cavities or expansions within the brain that are derived from the
lumen (opening) of the embryonic neural tube.
 Continuous with one another as well as with the central canal of
the spinal cord.
 Four ventricles in the brain.
 two lateral ventricles are in the cerebrum, separated by a thin
medial partition called the septum pellucidum
 within the diencephalon is a smaller ventricle called the third
ventricle
 each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an
opening called the interventricular foramen
 The fourth ventricle is located within the pons and cerebellum.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid
 A clear, colorless liquid that circulates in the ventricles and
subarachnoid space.
 Bathes the exposed surfaces of the central nervous system and
completely surrounds it.
 Performs several important functions.
 buoyancy

 protection

 environmental stability

 Formed by the choroid plexus in each ventricle.

 Produced by secretion of a fluid from the ependymal cells that
originate from the blood plasma.
 Is similar to blood plasma.

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Blood-Brain Barrier
 Nervous tissue is protected from the general
circulation by the blood-brain barrier.
 Strictly regulates what substances can enter the
interstitial fluid of the brain.
 Prevents exposure of neurons in the brain to drugs,
waste products in the blood, and variations in levels
of normal substances (ions, hormones) that could
adversely affect brain function.

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Blood-Brain Barrier
 Tight junctions prevent materials from diffusing
across the capillary wall.
 Astrocytes act as “gatekeepers” that permit materials
to pass to the neurons after leaving the capillaries.
 Is markedly reduced or missing in three distinct
locations in the CNS: the choroid plexus,
hypothalamus, and pineal gland.

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Cerebrum
 Account for 83% of brain mass
 Fissures – deep grooves – separate major regions of
the brain
 Transverse fissure – separates cerebrum and cerebellum
 Longitudinal fissure – separates cerebral hemispheres
 Sulci – grooves on the surface of the cerebral
hemispheres
 Gyri – twisted ridges between sulci
 Prominent gyri and sulci are similar in all people

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Cerebrum
 Deeper sulci divide cerebrum into lobes
 Lobes are named for the skull bones overlying them
 Central sulcus separates frontal and parietal lobes
 Bordered by two gyri
 Precentral gyrus
 Postcentral gyrus
 Parieto-occipital sulcus
 Separates the occipital from the parietal lobe
 Lateral sulcus
 Separates temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes
 Insula – deep within the lateral sulcus

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Cerebrum: functional areas
 Home of our conscious mind
 Enables us to:
 Be aware of ourselves and our sensations
 Initiate and control voluntary movements
 Communicate, remember, and understand

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Cerebral cortex
 Composed of gray matter
 Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and short
axons
 Folds in cortex – triples its size
 Approximately 40% of brain’s mass
 Brodmann areas – 52 structurally
distinct areas

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Cerebrum

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Functional areas of the cortex
 Three kinds of functional areas
 Motor areas
 Sensory areas
 Association areas

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Motor areas
 Controls motor functions
 Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area)
 Located in precentral gyrus (Brodmann
area 4)
 Pyramidal cells – large neurons of
primary motor cortex

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Motor areas
 Corticospinal tracts descend through
brainstem and spinal cord
 Axons signal motor neurons to control
skilled movements

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Motor areas
 Specific pyramidal cells control specific
areas of the body
 Face and hand muscles – controlled by
many pyramidal cells
 Motor homunculus – body map of the
motor cortex

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Sensory cortex
 Cortical areas involved in conscious
awareness of sensation
 Located in parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes
 Distinct area for each of the major
senses

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Primary Somatosensory Cortex
 Located along the postcentral gyrus
 Corresponds to Brodmann areas 1-3
 Involved with conscious awareness of
general somatic senses
 Spatial discrimination – precisely locates
a stimulus

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Primary Somatosensory Cortex
 Projection is contralateral
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Receive sensory input from the opposite side of
the body
 Sensory homunculus – a body map of
the sensory cortex

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Somatosensory Association Area
 Lies posterior to the primary
somatosensory cortex
 Corresponds to Brodmann areas 5 and 7
 Integrates different sensory inputs
 Touch, pressure, and others
 Draws upon stored memories of past
sensory experiences

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Sensory Areas – Visual Areas
 Primary visual cortex
 Corresponds to Brodmann area 17
 Located deep within the calcarine sulcus
 On the posterior and medial part of the
occipital lobe
 Receives visual information that originates
on the retina
 First of a series of areas that interprets
visual input

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Sensory Areas – Visual Areas
 Visual association area
 Surrounds the primary visual area
 Coincides with Brodmann areas 18 and 19
 Continues the processing of visual
information
 Complex visual processing extends into:
 Temporal and parietal lobes

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Sensory Areas – Auditory Areas
 Primary auditory cortex
 Function – conscious awareness of sound
 Location – superior edge of the temporal
lobe
 Corresponds to Brodmann areas 41 and 42

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Sensory Areas – Auditory Areas
 Auditory association area
 Lies posterior to the primary auditory
cortex
 Located within Brodmann area 22
 Permits evaluation of different sounds
 Lies in the center of Wernicke’s area
 Involved in recognizing and understanding
speech

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Sensory Areas – Gustatory Cortex
 Involved in the conscious awareness of
taste stimuli
 Corresponds to Brodmann area 43
 Located on the “roof” of the lateral
sulcus

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Sensory Areas – Vestibular Cortex
 Located in the posterior part of the
insula
 Deep to the lateral sulcus

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Sensory Areas – Olfactory Cortex
 Lies on the medial aspect of the
cerebrum
 Located in a region called the piriform
lobe
 Olfactory nerves transmit impulses to
the olfactory cortex
 Provides conscious awareness of smells

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Sensory Areas – Olfactory Cortex
 Part of the rhinencephalon – “nose brain”
 Includes – the piriform lobe, olfactory tract,
and olfactory bulb
 Connects the brain to the limbic system
 Explains why smells trigger emotions
 Orbitofrontal cortex
 Involved with consciously identifying and recalling
specific smells

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Association areas
 Make associations between different
types of sensory information
 Associate new sensory input with
memories of past experiences
 New name for association areas –
higher order processing areas

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Association Areas – Prefrontal
Cortex
 Large region of the frontal lobe anterior
to motor areas
 Performs cognitive functions
 All aspects of thinking and perceiving
 Remembering and recalling information
 Also related to mood
 Has close links to the limbic part of the
forebrain

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Association Areas – Prefrontal
Cortex
 Functional areas located on the medial
side of the frontal lobe
 Regions anterior to the corpus callosum
 Involved in complex personal and social
interactions
 Regions superior to the corpus callosum
 Involved in “mentalization

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Association Areas – Language
Area
 Surrounds the lateral sulcus in the left
cerebral hemisphere
 Five parts have been identified
 Broca’s area – speech production
 Wernicke’s area – speech comprehension
 Lateral prefrontal cortex – conceptual
analysis of spoken words

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Lateralization of Cortical
Functioning
 The two hemispheres control opposite
sides of the body
 Hemispheres are specialized for
different cognitive functions

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Lateralization of Cortical
Functioning
 Left cerebral hemisphere – more control over:
 Language abilities, math, and logic
 Right cerebral hemisphere – more involved
with:
 Visual-spatial skills
 Reading facial expressions
 Intuition, emotion, artistic and musical skills

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Basal nuclei
 Cooperate with the cerebral cortex in
controlling movements
 Receive input from many cortical areas
 Evidence shows that they:
 Start, stop, and regulate intensity of
voluntary movements
 In some way estimate the passage of time

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The Diencephalon
 Forms the center core of the forebrain
 Surrounded by the cerebral
hemispheres
 Composed of three paired structures:
 Thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
 Border the third ventricle
 Primarily composed of gray matter

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The Thalamus
 Makes up 80% of the diencephalon
 Contains approximately a dozen major
nuclei
 Send axons to regions of the cerebral
cortex
 Nuclei act as relay stations for incoming
sensory messages

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The Thalamus
 Afferent impulses converge on the
thalamus
 Synapse in at least one of its nuclei
 Is the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex
 Nuclei organize and amplify or tone
down signals

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The Diencephalon – The
Hypothalamus
 Lies between the optic chiasm and the
mammillary bodies
 Pituitary gland projects inferiorly
 Contains approximately a dozen nuclei
 Main visceral control center of the body

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The Hypothalamus
 Functions include the following:
 Control of the autonomic nervous system
 Control of emotional responses
 Regulation of body temperature
 Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations
 Control of behavior
 Regulation of sleep-wake cycles
 Control of the endocrine system
 Formation of memory

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The Diencephalon – The
Epithalamus
 Forms part of the “roof” of the third
ventricle
 Consists of a tiny group of nuclei
 Includes the pineal gland (pineal
body)
 Secretes the hormone melatonin
 Under influence of the hypothalamus

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The Brain Stem
 Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata
 Several general functions
 Produces automatic behaviors necessary for
survival
 Passageway for all fiber tracts running between
the cerebrum and spinal cord
 Heavily involved with the innervation of the face
and head
 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves attach to it

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The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
 Lies between the diencephalon and the
pons
 Central cavity – the cerebral aqueduct
 Cerebral peduncles located on the
ventral surface of the brain
 Contain pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts
 Superior cerebellar peduncles
 Connect midbrain to the cerebellum

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The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
 Periaqueductal gray matter surrounds
the cerebral aqueduct
 Involved in two related functions
 Fright-and-flight reaction
 Mediates response to visceral pain

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The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
 Corpora quadrigemina – the largest
nuclei
 Divided into the superior and inferior
colliculi
 Superior colliculi – nuclei that act in visual
reflexes
 Inferior colliculi – nuclei that act in reflexive
response to sound

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The Brain Stem – The Midbrain
 Imbedded in the white matter of the
midbrain
 Two pigmented nuclei
 Substantia nigra – neuronal cell bodies
contain melanin
 Functionally linked to the basal nuclei
 Red nucleus – lies deep to the substantia
nigra
 Largest nucleus of the reticular formation

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The Brain Stem – The Pons
 Located between the midbrain and
medulla oblongata
 Contains the nuclei of cranial nerves V,
VI, and VII
 Two general groups of cranial nerve
nuclei
 Motor nuclei
 Sensory nuclei

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The Brain Stem – The Medulla
Oblongata
 Most caudal level of the brain stem
 Continuous with the spinal cord
 Choroid plexus lies in the roof of the fourth
ventricle
 Pyramids of the medulla – lie on its ventral
surface
 Decussation of the pyramids – crossing over of motor
tracts
 Cranial nerves VIII–XII attach to the medulla

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The Brain Stem – The Medulla
Oblongata
 The core of the medulla contains:
 Much of the reticular formation
 Nuclei influence autonomic functions
 Visceral centers of the reticular formation include:
 Cardiac center
 Vasomotor center
 The medullary respiratory center
 Centers for hiccupping, sneezing, swallowing, and
coughing

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The Cerebellum
 Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
 Smoothes and coordinates body
movements
 Helps maintain equilibrium

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The Cerebellum
 Consists of two cerebellar hemispheres
 Surface folded into ridges called folia
 Separated by fissures
 Hemispheres each subdivided into:
 Anterior lobe
 Posterior lobe

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The Cerebellum
 Composed of three regions
 Cortex – gray matter
 Internal white matter
 Deep cerebellar nuclei – deeply situated gray
matter
 Cerebellum must receive information
 On equilibrium
 On current movements of limbs, neck, and trunk
 From the cerebral cortex

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The Cerebellum – Cerebellar
Peduncles
 Fibers to and from the cerebellum are
ipsilateral
 Run to and from the same side of the body
 Thick tracts connecting the cerebellum
to the brain stem
 Superior cerebellar peduncles
 Middle cerebellar peduncles
 Inferior cerebellar peduncles

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Functional Brain Systems
 Networks of neurons functioning
together
 The limbic system – spread widely in the
forebrain
 The reticular formation – spans the brain
stem

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Functional Brain Systems – The
Limbic System
 Location
 Medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres
 Also within the diencephalon
 Composed of:
 Septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampal
formation
 Part of the amygdala
 The fornix and other tracts link the limbic
system together

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Functional Brain Systems – The
Limbic System
 The “emotional brain”
 Cingulate gyrus
 Allows us to shift between thoughts
 Interprets pain as unpleasant
 Hippocampal formation
 Hippocampus and the parahippocampal
gyrus

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The Spinal Cord
 Link between the brain and the body.
 Exhibits some functional independence from
the brain.
 The spinal cord and spinal nerves serve two
functions:
 pathway for sensory and motor impulses
 responsible for reflexes

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Structure of the Spinal Cord
 Typical adult spinal cord
 ranges between 42 and 45 centimeters (cm) (16
to 18 inches) in length.
 In cross section
 roughly cylindrical
 slightly flattened both posteriorly and anteriorly.
 External surface has two longitudinal
depressions:
 the posterior (dorsal) median sulcus
 the anterior (ventral) median fissure

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Regions of the Spinal Cord
 The cervical region
 continuous with the medulla oblongata
 contains neurons whose axons form the cervical spinal
nerves (8)
 The thoracic region
 attached to this region are the thoracic spinal nerves (12)
 The lumbar region
 contains the neurons for the lumbar spinal nerves (5)
 The sacral region
 contains the neurons for the sacral spinal nerves (5)
 The coccygeal region
 one pair of coccygeal spinal nerves arises from this region

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Structure of the Spinal Cord
 The spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral canal
that houses it.
 Conus medullaris:
 tapered inferior end of the spinal cord
 marks the official “end” of the spinal cord proper.
 Cauda equina
 Inferior to conus medularis
 nerve roots (groups of axons) that project inferiorly from the
spinal cord.
 Filum terminale
 Within the cauda equina
 thin strand of pia mater
 helps anchor the conus medullaris to the coccyx.

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Structure of the Spinal Cord
 The spinal cord is associated with 31 pairs of spinal
nerves
 Connect the CNS to:
 receptors
 effectors (muscle and glands)
 Each side of the spinal cord contains:
 8 cervical nerves (called C1–C8)
 12 thoracic nerves (T1–T12)
 5 lumbar nerves (L1–L5)
 5 sacral nerves (S1–S5)
 1 coccygeal nerve (Co1)

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Arrangement and Functions of
the Spinal Meninges
 Are continuous with the cranial meninges.
 Structures that encircle the spinal cord, listed from
superficial to deep are:
 vertebra
 epidural space
 dura mater
 subdural space
 arachnoid
 subarachnoid space
 pia mater

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Location and Distribution of
Gray Matter
 In the spinal cord, it is centrally located.
 Its shape resembles a letter H or a butterfly.
 The gray matter may be subdivided into the following
components:
 anterior horns
 lateral horns
 posterior horns
 the gray commissure

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Location and Distribution of
White Matter
 The white matter of the spinal cord is
external to the gray matter.
 Three regions.
 Composed of tracts
 Ascending
 Descending
 A posterior funiculus:
 lies between the posterior gray horns and the
posterior median sulcus.

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Location and Distribution of
White Matter
 Lateral funiculus.
 Anterior funiculus
 between the anterior gray horns and the
anterior median fissure.
 The anterior funiculi are interconnected
by the white commissure.

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Spinal Nerves
 31 pairs
 connect the CNS to:
 receptors
 muscles, glands
 Each spinal nerve is mixed:
 thousands of motor and sensory axons.
 Sensory axons originate from receptors
 Motor axons originate from the spinal cord.
 Anterior root and posterior root unite within the
intervertebral foramen
 become a spinal nerve.
 Spinal nerve is associated with the vertebra of the
same number.

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Rami of Spinal Nerves
 Posterior (or Dorsal) ramus
 Innervates muscles and skin of the back
 Anterior Ramus
 Largest branch
 Forms plexuses
 Innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper
and lower limbs
 Rami communicantes
 Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic)

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Dermatomes
 A specific segment of skin supplied by a
single spinal nerve.
 All spinal nerves
 innervate a segment of skin and are associated
with a dermatome.
 except for C1
 Dermatome map:
 sensory segments: skin of the body associated
with a spinal nerve

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Intercostal Nerves
 Anterior rami of spinal nerves T1–
T11.
 Travel in the intercostal space
sandwiched between two adjacent
ribs

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Nerve Plexuses
 A network of interweaving anterior rami of
spinal nerves.
 nerve plexuses on both the right and left sides of
the body.
 Nerve plexuses then split into multiple
“named” nerves that innervate various body
structures.
 Principal plexuses
 cervical plexuses
 brachial plexuses
 lumbar plexuses
 sacral plexuses.
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Reflexes
 A reflex is a response:
 Rapid, automatic
 involuntary reactions of effectors to a stimulus.
 Properties.
 a stimulus
 required to initiate a response to sensory input
 a rapid response
 requires that few neurons be involved
 synaptic delay be minimal
 an automatic response occurs the same way every time
 An involuntary response requires no intent or pre-awareness of
the reflex activity.
 Reflexes usually can not be suppressed.
 Awareness of the stimulus occurs after the reflex action
 in time to correct or avoid a potentially dangerous situation.

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Components of a Reflex Arc
 The neural “wiring” of a single reflex.
 Always begins at a receptor in the PNS
 Sensory afferent
 Communicates with the CNS.
 May involve interneurons
 Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or
gland)
 Motor efferent

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Ipsilateral and Contralateral
Reflex Arcs
 Ipsilateral:
 both the receptor and effector organs of the reflex
are on the same side of the spinal cord.
 Contralateral
 the sensory impulses from a receptor organ cross
over through the spinal cord to activate effector
organs in the opposite side

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Monosynaptic Reflexes
 The simplest of all reflexes.
 No interneurons.
 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is a
monosynaptic reflex
 physicians use to assess the functioning of the
spinal cord.
 tap the patellar ligament with a reflex hammer
 muscle spindles in the quadriceps muscles are
stretched.
 Produces a noticeable kick of the leg.

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Polysynaptic Reflexes
 Have more complex neural pathways
 exhibit a number of synapses
 involve interneurons within the reflex arc.
 Has more components
 more prolonged delay between stimulus and response.

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149
150
Reflex Testing in a Clinical
Setting
 Reflexes can be used to test specific muscle groups
and specific spinal nerves or segments of the spinal
cord.
 Consistently abnormal reflex response may indicate
damage to the nervous system or muscles.
 A reflex response may be normal, hypoactive, or
hyperactive.

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 Tracts of the Spinal Cord
• Ascending tracts conduct sensory impulses to the brain
• Descending tracts conduct motor impulses from the brain
to motor neurons reaching muscles and glands
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Fasciculus gracilis
Dorsal column
Fasciculus cuneatus

Posterior spinocerebellar tract

Lateral corticospinal tract
Lateral reticulospinal tract
Rubrospinal tract

Anterior spinocerebellar tract

Lateral spinothalamic tract
Anterolateral
system Anterior spinothalamic tract
Anterior reticulospinal tract

Medial reticulospinal tract Anterior

corticospinal 152
tract
 Ascending Tracts
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Major ascending (sensory) Sensory

cortex of
spinal cord tracts: cerebrum

• Fasciculus gracilis and Cerebrum

(frontal
section)
fasciculus cuneatus Thalamus

• Spinothalamic tracts
• Lateral and anterior
Midbrain
Spinothalamic
tract

• Spinocerebellar tracts Brainstem

(transverse

• Posterior and anterior sections)

Pons Fasciculus
cuneatus
tract
Sensory
Medulla impulse
from skin
temperature
or pain
Spinal cord
receptors
(transverse section)
Sensory fibers
cross over 153
 Descending Tracts
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Major descending (motor) spinal Motor cortex

of cerebrum

cord tracts:
• Corticospinal tracts
Cerebrum
(frontal
section)

• Lateral and anterior

Corticospinal
tract

• Reticulospinal tracts Midbrain

• Lateral, anterior and medial

• Rubrospinal tract Brainstem
(transverse
sections)

Pons

Motor fibers
cross over
Medulla
oblongata

Spinal cord
(transverse section)

Motor
impulse to 154
skeletal
muscle
Nerve Tracts of the Spinal Cord

155
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Functions without conscious effort
• Controls visceral activities
• Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• Efferent fibers typically lead to ganglia outside of the CNS

• Two autonomic divisions regulate:

• Sympathetic division (speeds up)
• Prepares body for ‘fight or flight’ situations
• Parasympathetic division (slows down)
• Prepares body for ‘resting and digesting’ activities

156
 Autonomic Nerve Fibers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Interneurons

• All of the neurons are

motor (efferent) Dorsal root
ganglion
Dorsal root ganglion

Sensory
neuron Sensory

• Preganglionic fibers Spinal cord

Preganglionic Somatic motor neuron
neuron

• Axons of preganglionic Autonomic

ganglion
fiber

neurons Postganglionic
fiber

• Neuron cell bodies in Viscera

CNS Skin

• Postganglionic fibers Skeletal

muscle
• Axons of postganglionic (a) Autonomic pathway (b) Somatic pathway

neurons
• Neuron cell bodies in
ganglia 157
Autonomic Nervous System
 ANS
 complex system of nerves
 controls involuntary actions.
 Works with the somatic nervous system
(SNS)
 regulates body organs
 maintains normal internal functions.

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 SNS, PNS, and ANS

 SNS and ANS are both part of the peripheral

nervous system (PNS).
 SNS operates under our conscious control.
 ANS functions are involuntary.

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Comparison of SNS and ANS
 SNS uses both somatic sensory and somatic
motor neurons
 Somatic sensory neurons conduct stimulus
information from a sensory receptor
 Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscle
fibers.
 ANS also utilizes sensory and motor neurons.
 Visceral sensory neurons provide input to activate
the ANS
 Visceral motor neurons innervate smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
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161
Neuron Chains in ANS
 Preganglionic neurons
 Before the ganglion
 Ganglion
 Synapse
 Grey matter
 Postganlionic neurons
 After the ganglion

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163
Divisions of the ANS
 Two divisions
 Parasympathetic division
 Sympathetic division
 Divisions are similar:
 both use a preganglionic neuron (cell body in the CNS)
 Both use a postganglionic neuron (cell body in the
ganglion)
 innervates muscles or glands.
 Both contain autonomic ganglia
 house the cell body of the preganglionic neurons.
 Both are involuntary
 Both are concerned with the body’s internal
environment. (homeostasis)
 Divisions perform dramatically different
functions.
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The Parasympathetic Division
 Also termed the craniosacral division.
 Primarily concerned with:
 conserving energy
 replenishing nutrient stores.
 Is most active when the body is at rest or
digesting a meal.
 nicknamed the “rest-and-digest” division

 Works with the sympathetic division in

maintaining homeostasis (a constant internal
environment).

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The Sympathetic Division
 Also termed the thoracolumbar division.
 Primarily concerned with preparing the
body for emergencies.
 referred to as the “fight-or-flight”

division
 Increased sympathetic activity results
in:
 increased alertness
 Increased metabolic activity
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167
Anatomic Differences
 Divisions are distinguished by several
anatomic differences.
 Preganglionic neuron cell bodies are
housed in different regions of the CNS.
 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
originate in either:
 Brainstem
 lateral gray matter of the S2–S4 spinal cord regions.
 Sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate
in:
 lateral horns of the T1–L2 spinal cord regions
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Cranial Nerves: parasympathetic division
 Associated with the parasympathetic division:
 the oculomotor (CN III)

 facial (CN VII)

 glossopharyngeal (CN IX)

 vagus (CN X)

 First three of these nerves convey parasympathetic innervation

to the head.
 Vagus nerve is the source of parasympathetic stimulation for:
 thoracic organs
 most abdominal organs.

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Spinal Nerves: parasympathetic division
 Target organs innervated include:
 the distal portion of the large intestine
 the rectum
 most of the reproductive organs
 the urinary bladder
 the distal part of the ureter.
 Parasympathetic innervation causes
 increased smooth muscle motility (muscle contraction) and
secretory activity in digestive tract organs
 contraction of smooth muscle in the bladder wall
 erection of the female clitoris and the male penis

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Autonomic Reflexes
 ANS helps maintain homeostasis through the involuntary activity
of autonomic reflexes or visceral reflexes.
 Consist of smooth muscle contractions, cardiac muscle
contractions, or secretion by glands that are mediated by
autonomic reflex arcs in response to a specific stimulus.
 Example: micturition reflex, which partly controls the release

of urine
 Other reflexes include alteration of heart rate, changes in
respiratory rate and depth, regulation of digestive system
activities, and alteration of pupil diameter.
 Comparable to spinal reflexes.
 Classic autonomic reflex involves the reduction of blood
pressure.

18-171
 Terima kasih

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