NDT – NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Prepared by : D.VENKATESAN
MANAGER, BEML LIMITED
 NDT DEFINTION
NDT is an examination, test, or evaluation
• performed on any type of test object without changing or
altering that object in any way, in order to determine the
absence or presence of discontinuities that may have an effect
on the usefulness or serviceability of that object.
• may also be conducted to measure other test object
characteristics, such as size; dimension; configuration; or
structure, including alloy content, hardness, grain size, etc.
• NDT cannot guarantee that failures will not occur, it plays a
significant role in minimizing the possibilities of failure.
MAJOR NDT METHODS
• VT – VISUAL TESTING
• PT – PENETRANT TESTING
• MT – MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
• RT – RADIOGRAHIC TESTING
• UT – ULTRASONIC TESTING
• ECT – EDDY CURRENT TESTING
• AET – ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING
• TIR – THERMAL INFRARED TESTING
 VISUAL TESTING
• VT was the first nondestructive test (NDT) method used in the
nondestructive testing industry, but was last method to be formally
acknowledged.
• Direct visual testing is defined as using “visual aids such as mirrors,
telescopes, cameras, or other suitable instruments.”
• Direct visual examination is conducted when access allows the eye to
be within 25 inches (610 mm) of the surface to be examined, and at
an angle not less than 30° to the surface to be examined.
 VISUAL TESTING APPLICATION
• Visual examinations cover the spectrum of examining materials from raw
product form to the end of their useful lives.
• The technology associated with visual testing (VT) includes a spectrum of
applications, including various products and industries such as:
1. Tanks and vessels
2. Buildings
3. Fossil-fuel power plants
4. Nuclear power plants
5. Turbines and generators
6. Refinery plants
7. Aerospace
WELD
DISCONTINUTIES

UNDERFILL UNDER CUT

WELD DISCONTINUTIES

OVERLAP OR ROLLOVER

EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONCAVITY INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
WELD CRATER
 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELDS
Acceptance criteria for welds will be as designated by the applicable code or
specification and will usually include the following discontinuities:
1. Cracks
2. Incomplete penetration
3. Crater pits and cracks
4. Arc strikes
5. Undercut (dimension will be specified)
6. Surface porosity (usually defined by a maximum single size or some formula of
aggregate amount in a total length of weld)
7. Slag (surface)
8. Spatter
9. Burn-through or melt-through
10. Overlap and rollover
 PENETRANT TESTING
• Penetrant testing (PT) is one of the most widely used
nondestructive testing methods for the detection of surface
discontinuities in nonporous solid materials.
• It is extremely useful for examinations that are conducted in
remote field locations, since it is extremely portable.
• BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PT is based on capillary
action/attraction.
Capillary action is a surface tension phenomenon that
permits liquids to be drawn into tight openings as a result of
the energies that are present at the surfaces of the openings.
PENETRANT PROCEDURES
Selecting the correct technique for penetrant testing is very
important. Prior to performing the examination, a procedure
should be developed and qualified. When preparing the
procedure, the following should be considered:
• The requirements of the code, specification, or contract
• The type and size of discontinuity that is anticipated
• The surface condition of the test specimen
• The configuration of the part
• The quantity of parts to be examined
• Systems and equipment that are available
 PREREQUISITES FOR PT
Prior to any penetrant test, there are certain prerequisites that have to be
addressed.
• Temperature : Most codes and specifications require that the test part and
the penetrant materials be within a specified temperature range, typically
between 40 °F up to as high as 125 °F
• Environmental Considerations : penetrant testing should be performed in an
area where there is adequate ventilation.
• Lighting: There must be adequate lighting in the examination area, especially
during the time when the evaluation is performed.
• Surface Condition Considerations : Surfaces to be examined having coatings
such as paint or plating, or extremely rough conditions, must be addressed.
 PENETRANT TESTING
• CLEANING OF SURFACE TO BE TESTED
• APPLICATION OF PENETRANT DYE
• DWELL TIME
• REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT FROM SURFACE
• APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
• DEVELOPMENT TIME
• INSPECTION / INTERPRETATION
• POST CLEANING
PRECLEANING THE WELD SURFACE APPLICATION OF VISIBLE PENETRANT
REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
INDICATION OF BLEED OUT
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
• Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a nondestructive testing (NDT)
method for detecting discontinuities that are primarily linear and
located at or near the surface of ferromagnetic components and
structures.
• MT is governed by the laws of magnetism and is therefore restricted
to the inspection of materials that can support magnetic flux lines.

Only those metals classified as ferromagnetic can be effectively

inspected by MT.
 TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
• DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS: Any material with negative relative
permeability that is slightly less than one is diamagnetic.
Examples : mercury, gold, bismuth and zinc.
• PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS: When the internal magnetic field of a
material is aligned in the same direction as that of external field with
relative permeability slightly more than one is paramagnetic.
Examples : aluminium, platinum, copper sulphate and wood.
• FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS: When the internal magnetic field of a
material is aligned in the same direction as that of external field with
high relative permeability greater than one is ferromagnetic.
Examples : iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolinium
 MAGNETIC FIELD
CHARACTERISTICS
• RESIDUAL MAGNETIC FIELD : when magnetic domains remain
aligned after removal from influence of magnetic field, the
materials are magnetised.
• RETENTIVITY : the ability of the material to retain magnetism
after the magnetising force is removed.
• PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE:
i. They form closed loops
ii. They don't cross one another
iii. They seeks path of least magnetic resistance
iv. Their density decreases as distance from the poles increases.
LIKE POLES ATTRACT & UNLIKE POLES REPEL
MAGNETIC FIELD SURROUNDS A BAR MAGNET
CURRENT V/S MAGNETIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD IN COIL
 PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETISM
• POLARITY : The basic principles of magnetism can be deduced by
simple observation of behavior of a magnetized rod and its interaction
with ferromagnetic materials, including other magnetized rods.
• MAGNETIC FORCE : When the north pole of one magnetized rod is
placed close to the south pole of another, it will be observed that they
attract one another. The closer they come together, the stronger the
force of attraction.
• MAGNETIC FIELD : The simple observations of attracting and repelling
indicate that some force field surrounds the magnetized rod.
• FLUX DENSITY : The flowing force of magnetism is called “magnetic
flux.” Flux density is defined as “the number of lines of force per unit
area.”
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
PROCEDURE
1.Generally inspect the part and review the testing criteria.
2.Clean the part well.
3.Set up a magnetic field in one direction.
4.Cover the field area with a contrasting magnetic medium.
(Can be a dry powder or an oil with fluorescent particles.)
5.Set up a magnetic field in another direction.
6.Again, cover the field area with a contrasting magnetic
medium.
7.Inspect the areas where the particles accumulate.
FIRST STEP : SET UP A MAGNETIC
FIELD
MAGNETIZATION TECHNIQUES
• Magnetic Flow Techniques (Indirect) : The “indirect” or magnetic
flow technique is defined as one in which the test part becomes part
of the magnetic circuit by bridging the path between the poles of a
permanent magnet or electromagnet. Eg. AC yoke
• Current Flow Techniques (Direct) : The “direct” technique is defined
as one in which the magnetizing current flows through the part,
thereby completing the electrical circuit. This is accomplished by
placing the part between the “heads” of a stationary unit
• Coil technique : This produces longitudinal magnetism in the part as
the current flows through the coil and creates a longitudinal field
through and around the coil. This is referred to as the “longitudinal
magnetization” technique.
• Central Conductor Technique : “Central” conductor is sometimes a
misnomer because the opening through which the nonmagnetic
conductor is positioned is not always central. The technique is
sometimes referred to as the “threader bar” technique.
• Continuous and Residual Techniques
There are four techniques that can be used to inspect parts using these
methods of magnetization, they are:
1. Dry continuous
2. Dry residual
3. Wet continuous
4. Wet residual
Summary of Technique Choices
It is obvious that there are many options and choices to consider when
developing the most suitable technique for the part to be inspected. In
order to provide the optimum inspection approach, some of the key
areas to be evaluated include:
• Material type
• Part configuration
• Dimensions
• Surface condition
• Type and location of discontinuities anticipated
• Code and specification requirements
• Customer-specific requirements
Once these are known, the choice of technique can be
made. These key items should be considered:
• Type of current (AC, HWDC, FWDC)
• Wet suspension or dry particles
• Visible or fluorescent particles
• Direct or indirect magnetization
• Continuous or residual
• Stationary or portable equipment
• The best combination can be determined through
qualification by validation through the use of
controlled test specimens.
 ULTRASONIC TESTING
• Audible Sound - 20 to 20,000 cps (Hz)
• Normal UT Range
• 100,000 to 25,000,000 Hz
• 0.1 to 25 MHz
• Wavelength = Velocity/Frequency
ULTRASONIC TESTING MEDIUM
 TRANSDUCERS
 EQUIPMENT
 COUPLANT
 WORK PIECE / SPECIMEN
UT TRANSDUCERS
 TYPES OF UT TRANSDUCERS
• Contact : a single element transducer usually generates longitudinal
wave that is intended for direct contact with test piece.
• Dual element : it consists of 2 longitudinal dual elements (one for
transmitting, other for receiving) both housed in same case isolated by
acoustic barrier. Applications : testing heavily corroded parts
• Angle beam : a single element transducer used with a wedge to
introduce longitudinal or sheave waves into a part at a single angle
Application : Weld inspection
• Delay line : a single element broadband contact transducer designed
for improved resolution of flaws very near to surface of part & allow
low thinner range and more accurate thickness measurement of
materials.
CONTACT TRANSDUCERS -

DUAL ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS -

ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS

Applications
 For flaw detection and sizing
 Inspection of pipes, tubes, forgings,
castings as well as machined and
structural components for weld defects
or cracks

DELAY LINE TRANSDUCER

BLACK BOX IS UT DEVICE

ACOUSTIC IMPEDENCE IS THE

PHYSICAL PROPERTY OF MATERIAL
WHICH DECIDES HOW EASILY
ULTRASOUND WAVES CAN TRAVEL
INSIDE A MATERIAL
UT FLAW TESTING
6dB METHOD In ultrasound, the 6db drop method is widely used to
measure the length / width of an indication. a -6db
drop corresponds to half the original amplitude.

PROCEDURE:
1. A probe is swept from left to right
2. When edge of beam encounters an indication, a
signal appears on the screen
3. When beam is completely over an indication, echo is
at its max. Amplitude
4. when half the beam is outside the indication & half
is over, that is when 6db drop or half the amplitude
is obtained
5. the distance b/w the two 6db positions gives width
of an indication
 RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

PRINCIPLE – DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION OF RADIATION

Factors causing differential absorption :

- Atomic number
- Density
- Thickness
 ADVANTAGES- DISADVANTAGES
i. Permanent record Radiation hazard.
ii. Detect internal flaws Sensitive to defect
orientation.
iii. Can be used on most materials
Both side access.
iv. Can check for correct assembly Slow method of inspection.
v. Gives direct image of flaw.
CONTRAST AND DEFINITION
IQI – IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
• HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETER
PURPSOSE OF IQI
as a check on the
performance of the
selected radiographic
technique

• WIRE TYPE PENETRAMETER

RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
SWSI - SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
DWSI – DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
DWDI – DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
PANORAMIC EXPOSURE
SWSI DWSI
PANORAMIC EXPOSURE
 RADIOGRAPHY TESTING – FILM
INTERPRETATION
TYPES OF DEFECTS :
LACK OF ROOT PENETRATION LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION
LACK OF ROOT FUSION TRANSVERSE CRACKING
EXCESS PENETRATION SLAG INCLUSIONS
CRATER CRACK PIPING
LACK OF ROOT FUSION WITH MISALIGNMENT HAZ CRACK
EXCESSIVE ROOT PENETRATION
CONCAVE ROOT
CLUSTER POROSITY
BURN THROUGH
WORM HOLES
HARD STAMPING
ROOT UNDERCUT
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
 APPLICATIONS OF NDT IN
INDUSTRY
NDT CAN BE EFFECTIVELY USED FOR
• Examination of raw materials prior to processing
• Evaluation of materials during processing as a
means of process control
• Examination of finished products
• Evaluation of products and structures once they
have been put into service
DIFFERENCE B/W DEFECTS & FLAWS
• All parts have “flaws” of some magnitude but the
parts are not necessarily defective.
• A defective component is one that will not
perform as required for the necessary time.
• A “defect” is a deviation from what is allowable.
• In NDE terminology, flaws are called indications.
Defects are called “relevant indications”.
 WHAT IS A DEFECT
• A defect is a discontinuity of such size, shape, type, number, or location
that results in a condition that will cause the material to fail in service
or not be used for its intended purpose.
RAW MATERIALS DISCONTINUITY
• Cracks may occur longitudinally or in the transverse plane in the ingot.
• Scabs are surface conditions on ingots caused by the hot molten metal
splashing on the mold surface, solidifying and oxidizing such that it will
not re-fuse to the ingot.
• Pipe is a cavity formed by shrinkage during the last stage of
solidification of the molten metal.
• Voids are produced during the solidification of the ingot, caused by
insufficient degassing.
GLOSSARY TERMS
• DEFECT – A flaw that can significantly impact the
performance of the material
• FLAW – An irregularity in the material
• TRANSDUCER – a device that converts a mechanical
force to and electrical signal and vice-versa
• RELEVANT INDICATION – something to be
concerned about
 ASNT PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION
• Level I – Can conduct a test under Level II
supervision
• Level II – Knows what they are doing within
specific inspection area
• Level III - Knows and can perform a wide range of
NDT methods
(Typical inspector may be certified Level II in VT,
PT, MT, and UT)