EE-215

Lecture No 02

Electronic Devices & Circuits

Text Book: Chapter 01 (SEDRA/SMITH 6th Ed)

Signal and Amplifiers

1.1 Signals
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals
1.4 Amplifiers
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Instructor: Shakeel Alvi

Class: BEE 7 A&B
Electrical Engineering Department
Feb 2017
 Types of Sources
• Independent Source
whose voltage or current does not
Depend on other voltages or currents
in the circuit

• Dependent (controlled) Source

whose magnitude is a function of
another voltage or current in the
circuit

Microelectronic Circuits, Sixth Edition

Sedra/Smith Copyright © 2010 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
 Signals
• Signals contain information
• Extraction of information needs signal processing
• Signal processing by Electronics Systems
• Converted to electrical signals through transducers

signal source representations

Thevenin form is preferred

when Rs is low
Norton form is preferred
when Rs is high
the Thévenin form the Norton form
 Signals
• It is desirable that full signal strength from the source is delivered to
the load
• The ability is limited by the source resistance

• In case of Thevenin form

RL When RS is very small
vo  vs
RL  RS vo  vs

• In case of Norton form

RS When RS is very l arg e

io  is
RS  RL io  is
Figure 1.2 Circuits for Example 1.1.
 Signals
• Signals can also be represented as sum of
sinusoids
• Fourier series and Fourier Transforms are
used as tools to convert time domain
signals into frequency domain and vice-
versa
Signal Representation in Time-Domain

An arbitrary voltage signal vs(t)

Sine-wave voltage signal with

Amplitude = Va
Frequency = f = (1/T) Hz
Angular frequency ω = 2πf rad/s

va (t )  Va sin t
square-wave signal of amplitude V
 Signal Representation in
Frequency-Domain

The frequency spectrum (also known as the line

spectrum) of the periodic square wave

4V
v(t )  sin 0t  13 sin 30t  15 sin 50t  

Signal Representation in
Frequency-Domain

The frequency spectrum of an

arbitrary waveform
 Analogue and Digital Signals

• If we sample a signal at regular interval

• Represent magnitude of each of the signal sample by a
number, then the signal is said to be quantized or
digitized
• Thus a digital signal is then simply a sequence of
numbers that represent the magnitude of successive
signal samples
• The choice of number system to represent a sample
• The binary number is the simplest, can have only two
possible values i.e. “0” or “1”
Analogue and Digital Signals
DA & AD Converters
 Amplifiers
• Amplifiers
• Voltage Gain
• Expressing Gain in Decibels
• Amplifier Power Supplies
• Amplifier Saturation
• Buffer Amplifier
• Cascaded Amplifier
• Unilateral Models
• Frequency Response
• Single Time Constant
• Operational Amplifier
 Amplifier
• Weak signals need to be
amplified before further processing
for information extraction
• Amplification is fundamental
signal processing function and is
accomplished by signal amplifier

Examples
 Transducers’ output is generally
weak (i.e. a few µv or mv)
 Radio signal received by a
receiver is weak

Circuit symbol for amplifier

These signals need to be amplified
Amplifier Gain

A voltage amplifier with an

input signal vi(t) and load RL

Voltage Gain Transfer characteristic of linear

voltage amplifier with voltage
vo (t )  Av vi (t ) gain Av
Current Gain
vo (t )
Av  io (t )  Ai ii (t )
vi (t )
io (t ) Load power ( PL )
Ai  Power gain ( AP ) 
ii (t ) Input power ( PI )
vo io
AP  Av Ai 
vi vi
 Gain in Decibels
Amplifier gain may be expressed in dB
(a logarithmic measure)

Voltage gain  20 log Av dB

Current gain  20 log Ai dB

Power gain  10 log Ap dB

Amplifier Power
Supplies and Efficiency
• Power delivered to the load is greater than
the power drawn from the source
• Where the additional power comes from ??
power source
• Some of the power is dissipated by the An amplifier that requires two dc
amplifier circuit supplies
Power drawn from the power supplies
Pdc  VCC I CC  VEE I EE
Power balance equation
Pdc  PI  PL  Pdissipated
As PI is very small
Amplifier efficiency
PL PL
  100    100
Pdc  PI Pdc
 Amplifier
Saturation

• If the input signal

exceeds certain limits, the
output peaks are clipped
and thus the signal is
distorted

• Distortion is undesirable An amplifier transfer characteristic that is

as it results in distorted linear except for output saturation.
information
Symbol Convention

Figure 1.15 Symbol convention employed throughout the book.

 Circuit Model for Voltage
Amplifier
• The input voltage signal vi
appears across the input
resistance Ri
• The output is represented
by voltage source dependent
on vi in series with the output
resistance Ro
Circuit model for the voltage
• Avo is the open-circuit
amplifier
voltage gain
 Voltage Amplifier
RL
vo  Avo vi
RL  Ro

The voltage gain is :

v RL
Av  o  Avo
vi RL  Ro The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load

Ri The overall voltage gain is :

vi  vs vo Ri RL
Ri  Rs  Avo
vs Ri  Rs RL  Ro
 Exercise
1. An Amplifier has a voltage gain of 100 V/V and a current
gain of 1000 A/A . Express the voltage and current
gains in decibels and find power gain .

2. An amplifier operating from a single 15-v supply

provides a 12-v peak –to –peak sine wave signal to a 1k
Ohm load and draws negligible input current from the
signal source . The dc current drawn from the 15-v
supply is 8mA . What is the power dissipated in the
amplifier , and what is the amplifier efficiency ?

Microelectronic Circuits, Sixth Edition Sedra/Smith Copyright © 2010 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Solution
Solution 2
 Cascaded Amplifier

Figure 1.17 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.

Avo1  ?
vL ?
Avo 2  ? vS
io Po
Avo 3  ? ii
?
Pi
? Work out and understand
Example 1.3
Frequency Response of
Amplifiers

At a frequency ω , the amplifier gain is characterized

by its magnitude (Vo /Vi) and phase ø
 Amplifier Bandwidth

Typical magnitude response of an amplifier

Vo ( )
T ( ) 
Vi ( )
 RC Filters

Examples of STC networks

(a) a low-pass network
(b) a high-pass network.
Frequency Response of
Low-Pass Filter

(a) Magnitude response (b) phase response

Frequency Response of
High-Pass Filter

(a) Magnitude response (b) phase response

 Operational Amplifier

 R2 
vo   Vin
 R1 
 Summary
• An electrical signal source can be represented in either the Thevenin form (a
voltage source vs in series with a source resistance Rs) or the Norton form (a
current source is in parallel with a source resistance Rs)
 
• A signal can be represented either by its waveform versus time, or as the sum
of sinusoids.
 
• Analog signals have magnitudes that can assume any value. Electronic circuits
that process analog signals are called analog circuits.
 
• Sampling the magnitude of an analog signal at discrete instants of time and
representing each signal sample by a number, results in a digital signal. Digital
signals are processed by digital circuits
 
• The simplest digital signals are obtained when the binary system is used. An
individual digital signal then assumes one of only two possible values: low and
high (say, 0 V and +5 V), corresponding to logic 0 and logic 1, respectively
 Summary Cont…
• An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) provides at its output the digits of the
binary number representing the analog signal sample applied to its input. The
output digital signal can then be processed using digital circuits.
 
• The transfer characteristic, v0 versus vi of a linear amplifier is a straight line
with a slope equal to the voltage gain.
 
• Amplifiers increase the signal power and thus require dc power supplies for
their operation.
 
• The amplifier voltage gain can be expressed as a ratio Av in V/V or in decibels,.
 
• Amplifiers are classified according to the shape of their frequency response,
• Unilateral Models: means signal flow is unidirectional, i.e. from input to output
 Summary Cont…
• Single-time-constant (STC) networks are those networks . that are composed of,
or can be reduced to, one reactive component (L or C and one resistance (R).
The time constant T is either L/R or CR
 
• STC networks Can be classified into two categories: low-pass (LP) and high-
pass (HP). LP networks pass dc and low frequencies and attenuate high
frequencies. The opposite is true for HP networks

• Ideal Operational Amplifier has

– Infinite Input Impedance
– Zero output Impedance
– Infinite common mode rejection ratio
– Infinite Gain
– Gain for Inverting Op-Amp = - R2/R1
– Gain of Non –Inverting Op –Amp is ( 1 + R2/R1)
 Practice and Understand

• Exercise 1.10, 1.11, 1.14 and example 1.3

Go through all the slides of No 1

 Home Assignment

Exercises: 1.15, 1.21 D1.24, 1.34

Submit on Monday (2 March-2015)

Fourier series and transform

Animated
• Function s(x) (in red)
is a sum of six sine
functions of different
amplitudes and
harmonically related
frequencies. Their
summation is called a
Fourier series. The
Fourier transform, S(f)
(in blue), which
depicts amplitude vs
frequency, reveals the
6 frequencies and
their amplitudes.
 Sample and Hold
• In Electronics, a sample and hold (S/H,
also "follow-and-hold”) circuit is an analog
device that samples (captures, grabs) the
voltage of a continuously varying analog
signal and holds (locks, freezes) its value
at a constant level for a specified
minimum period of time. Sample and hold
circuits and related peak detector are the
elementary analog memory devices.
They are typically used in
analog-to-digital converters to eliminate
variations in input signal that can corrupt
the conversion proces
 Glitch

Microelectronic Circuits, Sixth Edition Sedra/Smith Copyright © 2010 by Oxford University Press, Inc.