Operational

Amplifiers
 Introduction

• Operational Amplifiers are represented

both schematically and realistically below:
– Active component!
PIN Connections of 741
3-stage Op-Amp
 Amplifiers

Single-ended Amplifier

• Differential Amplifier
– Amplifies difference
between inputs
Non-inverting Op-Amp
Inverting Op-Amp

                                              

                         
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
– A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the
input voltages result in a
very large output voltage
– Output limited by supply
voltages
• Comparator
– If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
– If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
– If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
 Characteristics of Ideal Op
Amp
• Zin is infinite
• Zout is zero
• Amplification (Gain) Vout / Vin = ∞
• Unlimited bandwidth
• Vout = 0 when Voltage inputs = 0
 General comparison
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp

Input Resistance infinity 106  (bipolar)

109  - 1012  (FET)
Input Current 0 10-12 – 10-8 A
Output Resistance 0 100 – 1000 
Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109
Common Mode Gain 0 10-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)
Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain
 Why are they useful?

• Sensor signals are often too weak or too

noisy
– Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
 How are Op-Amps used?
• Comparator (seen earlier)
• Voltage follower (seen earlier)
• Signal Modulation
• Mathematical Operations
• Filters
• Voltage-Current signal conversion
 Comparator

V1
Vout
V2

Uses: Low-voltage alarms,

night light controller
Pulse Width Modulator
• Output changes when
– Vin ~= Vpot
• Potentiometer used to vary
duty cycle

Uses: Motor controllers

 Summation

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs

until a threshold is reached.
Difference

V 2 R3  R1 R4 V1 R3
Vout  
( R4  R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal:

Vout  V2  V1
 Integrating Op-Amp

Uses: PID Controller

 Differentiating Op-Amp

(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)

Filters
 Single-Pole Active Filter

R
vin C
vout

• Same frequency response as passive

filter.
• Buffer amplifier does not load RC
network.
• Output impedance is now zero.
 Low-Pass and High-Pass
Designs
High Pass Low Pass

vout 1 1
 
vin 1 1  sRC vout 1 / RC
1
sCR sCR 
sRC s vin s  1 / RC
 
RC ( s  1 / RC ) ( s  1 / RC )
Advantages of Active Filters over Passive
Filters

1. Active filters can be designed to provide required gain,

and hence no attenuation as in the case of passive filters
2. No loading problem, because of high input resistance
and low output resistance of op-amp.
3. Active Filters are cost effective as a wide variety of
economical op-amps are available.
 Applications

Active filters are mainly used in communication and signal

processing circuits.
They are also employed in a wide range of applications
such as entertainment, medical electronics, etc.
 Active Filters

There are 4 basic categories of active filters:

1. Low pass filters
2. High pass filters
3. Band pass filters
4. Band reject filters

Each of these filters can be built by using op-amp

as the active element combined with RC, RL or RLC
circuit as the passive elements.
 Basic Filter Responses
1. Low-pass filter
Allows the frequency from 0Hz to critical frequency.

Ideal response actual response

The critical frequency can be formula by

1
fc 
2RC
 Basic Filter Responses
1. High-Pass filter
Only allowing the frequencies above the critical frequency.

Ideal response actual response

The critical frequency can be formula by

1
fc 
2RC
 Basic Filter Responses
3. Band-pass filter
Allows frequencies between a lower critical frequency (fc1)
and an upper critical frequency (fc2).

Ideal response actual response

 Basic Filter Responses
3. Band-pass filter

Bandwidth, BW = fc2-fc1

center frequency, fo
f1  f 2
fo 
2

Quality factor (Q) is the ratio of center

frequency fo to the BW

fo
Q
BW

The narrower the bandwidth,

the higher the quality factor.
 Basic Filter Responses
4. Band-stop filter
Opposite of a band-pass.
Frequencies above and below fc1 and fc2 are passed.

Ideal response
actual response
 Filter Response Characteristics
The number of filter poles can be increase by cascading
 Active Low-Pass Filters
Low Pass Response

Roll-off depends on
number the of poles.
 Active Low-Pass Filters
A Single-Pole Filter

R 1
Acl  1  1 fc 
R2 2RC
 Active Low-Pass Filters
Cascaded LPF – Three pole
• cascade two-pole and single-pole
• roll-off -60dB per decade
 Active Low-Pass Filters
Cascaded LPF – Four pole
• cascade two-pole and two-pole
• roll-off -80dB per decade
 Active Low-Pass Filters
Example
• Determine the capacitance values required to produce a critical
frequency of 2680 Hz if all resistors in RC low pass circuit is
1.8k
1
fc 
2RC

1
C  0.033F
2f c R

CA1=CB1=CA2=CB2=0.033µf
 Active High-Pass Filters

High Pass Response

Roll-off depends on
number the of poles.
 Active High-Pass Filters
A Single-Pole Filter

Acl  1 
R1 1
R2
fc 
2RC
 Active High-Pass Filters
Cascaded LPF – Six pole
• cascade 3 Sallen-Key two-pole stages
• roll-off -120 dB per decade
 Active Band-Pass Filters
A cascaded of a low-pass and high-pass filter.
Active Band-Pass Filters

1
f c1 
2 RA1 RB1C A1C B1

1
fc2 
2 RA2 RB 2C A 2C B 2

f0  f c1 f c 2
 Active Band-Pass Filters

Multiple-Feedback BPF
• The low-pass circuit consists of R1 and C1.
• The high-pass circuit consists of R2 and C2.
• The feedback paths are through C1 and R2.

center frequency
1
f0 
2 R1 // R3 R2C1C2
 Active Band-Pass Filters
State-Variable BPF is widely used for band-pass applications.
• It consists of a summing amplifier and two integrators.
• It has outputs for low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass.
• The center frequency is set by the integrator RC circuits.
• R5 and R6 set the Q (bandwidth).