Unit 18

Discrete Mathematics
 Why Mathematics?
Design efficient computer systems.
 How did Google manage to build a fast search engine?

 What is the foundation of internet security?

algorithms, data structures, database,

parallel computing, distributed systems,
cryptography, computer networks…

Logic, number theory, counting, set, graph theory…

What Is Discrete Mathematics?
• What it isn’t: continuous
• Discrete: consisting of distinct or unconnected
elements
• Countably Infinite

• Definition Discrete Mathematics

• Discrete Mathematics is a collection of mathematical

topics that examine and use finite or countably
infinite mathematical objects.

3
What is Discrete Mathematics?

• Discrete mathematics is the branch of mathematics handling objects

that only considers distinct, separated values.

• It is steadily being applied in the multiple domains of mathematics and

computer science. It is accounted as a very effective approach for
developing and problem-solving strength.

• Discrete Mathematics focuses on the systematic study of

Mathematical structures that are essentially discrete in nature and
does not demand the belief of continuity.
What is Discrete Mathematics?
• In simple words, discrete mathematics gives an individual the ability
to understand mathematical language that can be learned through
various branches of it.
Set Theory
• A set is a collection of some items (elements). We often use capital letters
to denote a set. To define a set we can simply list all the elements in curly
brackets { } separated by commas.

A set is a collection of things (elements).

• for example to define a set A that consists of the two elements ♣ and ♢, we
write A={♣,♢}
• To say that ♢ belongs to A, we write ♢∈A, where "∈" is pronounced "belongs to." To
say that an element does not belong to a set, we use ∉. For example, we may
write ♡∉A.
• Note that ordering does not matter, so the two sets {♣,♢}{♣,♢} and {♢,♣}{♢,♣} are
equal.
Set Theory
 Set Theory
Set Builder Notation
• We can also define a set by mathematically stating the properties satisfied by the
elements in the set. In particular, we may write
• A={x|x satisfies some property}A={x|x satisfies some property}
or
A={x:x satisfies some property}A={x:x satisfies some property}
The symbols "|" and ":" are pronounced "such that."

Example
•If the set C is defined as C={x|x∈Z,−2≤x<10}C={x|x∈Z,−2≤x<10}, then C={−2,−1,0,⋯,9}

• If the set D is defined as D={x2|x∈N}D={x2|x∈N}, then D={1,4,9,16,⋯}D={1,4,9,16,⋯}.

•The set of rational numbers can be defined as Q={a/b|a,b∈Z,b≠0}Q={ab|a,b∈Z,b≠0}.
Set Theory
Examples for Sets

• “Standard” Sets:
• Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Integers Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
• Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Real Numbers R = {47.3, -12, , …}
• Rational Numbers Q = {1.5, 2.6, -3.8, 15, …}

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 9

Set Theory
Examples for Sets

• A= “empty set/null set”

• A = {z} Note: zA, but z  {z}
• A = {{b, c}, {c, x, d}}
• A = {{x, y}}
Note: {x, y} A, but {x, y}  {{x, y}}
• A = {x | P(x)}
“set of all x such that P(x)”
• A = {x | xN  x > 7} = {8, 9, 10, …}
“set builder notation”
Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 10
Set Theory

• Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in
visualizing relation between sets. In
a Venn diagram any set is depicted by a
closed region.

• In this figure, the big rectangle shows the

universal set S. The shaded area shows
another set A
 Set Theory
Subsets
•A  B “A is a subset of B”
•A  B if and only if every element of A is also an
element of B.
• Useful rules:
•   A for any set A
• A  A for any set A
• Equivalently, we say B is a superset of A, or B ⊇ A. .
•Examples:

Venn Diagram for two sets A and B, where B⊂A.

Set Theory
• Proper Subsets
Set A is considered to be a proper subset of Set B if Set B example;
contains at least one element that is not present in Set A. • 2. A = {p, q, r}
• A proper subset is denoted by ⊂ B = {p, q, r, s, t}
• If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B
if A ⊆ B but B ⊇ A i.e., A ≠ B Here A is a proper subset of
B as all the elements of set
example; A are in set B and also A ≠
B.
1) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Here n(A) = 4,
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Here n(B) = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element ‘5’
of B is not present in A. Notes:
• No set is a proper subset of itself.
So, we say that A is a proper subset of B. • Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of
Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B every set.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 13

Set Theory
• How many subsets and Example
proper subsets does a set
have? If set A has the
If a set has “n” elements, then the elements, A = {a, b},
number of subset of the given set then what is the subset
is 2n  & proper subset of the
And given set?
the number of proper subsets of
the given subset is given by 2n-1. 
 Set Theory
• Power Set
• The power set is said to be the collection of all the subsets. It is represented by P(A).
• If A is set having elements {a, b}. Then the power set of A will be;
• P(A) =  {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
• For example;
If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 =2^2

In general, n[P(A)] = 2^m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 15

 Set Theory
• Universal Set
• A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called
a universal set. The symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.
• For example;
If A = {1, 2, 3}      B = {2, 3, 4}      C = {3, 5, 7}

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 16

 Set Theory
• Set Operations

• The union of two sets is a set containing all elements

that are in A or in B

• For example;
{1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}
Thus, we can write x∈(A∪B) if and only if (x∈A) or (x∈B)
Note that A∪B=B∪A

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 17

 Set Theory
• Set Operations

The intersection of two sets A and B,

denoted by A∩B, consists of all
elements that are both in A and B

• For example;
{1,2}∩{2,3}={2}

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 18

 Set Theory
• Set Operations

The complement of a set A, denoted

by Ac or A¯ is the set of all
elements that are in the universal
set S but are not in A

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 19

 i

Set Theory
• Set Operations

The difference (subtraction) is defined as

follows. The set A−B consists of elements
that are in A but not in B

For example
A={1,2,3} and B={3,5},
then A−B={1,2}.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 20

 i

Set Theory

• Set Operations

Two sets A and B are mutually
exclusive or disjoint if they do not have
any shared elements;

i.e., their intersection is the empty

set, A∩B=∅A∩B=∅.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 21

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Set Theory
For example,
A Cartesian product  If A={1,2,3} and B={H,T},
of two sets A and B, written as A×B, is the set then
containing ordered pairs from A and B. A×B={(1,H),(1,T),(2,H),
(2,T),(3,H),(3,T)}.

That is, if C=A×B, then each element of C is

A×B is not the same as B×A.
of the form (x,y), where x∈A and y∈B:

A×B={(x,y)|x∈A and y∈B}.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 22