ECOLOGY

Unit 4
Understandings:

• Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring
• Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations
• A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other
• A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment
• Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods)
• Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment
• Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion
• Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion
• Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion
• The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling
• Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time

Skills:

• Classifying species as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores or saprotrophs from a knowledge of their mode of nutrition
• Setting up sealed mesocosms to try to establish sustainability
• Testing for association between two species using the chi-squared test with data obtained by quadrat sampling
• Recognising and interpreting statistical significance
• A species is a group of organisms that can potentially
interbreed to produce fertile, viable offspring

• Members of a single species are unable to produce

fertile, viable offspring with members from a
different species
• When two different species do produce offspring by
cross-breeding, these hybrids are reproductively
sterile (e.g. liger, mule)
Ecological Terms

• A population is a group of organisms of the

same species that are living in the same area at
the same time

• Organisms that live in different regions (i.e.

different populations) are reproductively
isolated and unlikely to interbreed, however are
classified as the same species if interbreeding is
functionally possible
Species:

• A group of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile, viable

offspring

Population:

• A group of organisms of the same species, living in the same area at the same
time

Community:

• A group of populations living together and interacting with each other within a
given area
Habitat:

• The environment in which a species normally lives, or the location of a

living organism

Ecosystem:

• A community and its abiotic environment (i.e. habitat)

Ecology:

• The study of the relationship between living organisms, or between

living organisms and their environment
Modes of Nutrition
Understanding:
Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods)

Living organisms obtain chemical energy in one of two ways:

Autotrophs

• Synthesises its own organic molecules from simple inorganic substances

(e.g. CO2, nitrates)
• Energy for this process is derived from sunlight (photosynthesis) or via the
oxidation of inorganic molecules (chemosynthesis)
• Because autotrophs synthesise their own organic molecules they are
commonly referred to as producers
Heterotrophs

• Obtains organic molecules from other organisms (either living /

recently killed or their non-living remains and detritus)
• Because heterotrophs cannot produce their own organic molecules
and obtain it from other sources, they are called consumers

Mixotrophs

• Certain unicellular organisms may on occasion use both forms of

nutrition, depending on resource availability
• Euglena gracilis possess chlorophyll for photosynthesis (autotrophic)
but may also feed on detritus (heterotrophic)
Skill:
Classifying species as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores or saprotrophs based on their mode of
nutrition

Species can be classified according to their mode of nutrition

• Autotrophs produce their own organic molecules using either light

energy or energy derived from the oxidation of chemicals
• Heterotrophs obtain organic molecules from other organisms via
one of three methods:
• Consumers ingest organic molecules from living or recently killed
organisms
• Detritivores ingest organic molecules found in the non-living
remnants of organisms (e.g. detritus, humus)
• Saprotrophs release digestive enzymes and then absorb the
external products of digestion (decomposers)
Autotrophs
Understanding:
• Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment
• Autotrophs synthesise organic molecules from simple inorganic substances

• Most autotrophs derive the energy for this process from sunlight (via photosynthesis)
• Some may derive the needed energy from the oxidation of inorganic chemicals
(chemosynthesis)

• Autotrophs obtain the simple inorganic substances required for this process from the abiotic
environment

• These nutrients – including carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and phosphorus – are
obtained from the air, water and soil

• Heterotrophs also may obtain some simple inorganic substances from the environment, but
principally obtain their carbon and nitrogen from the organic molecules produced by
autotrophs
Heterotrophs

• Heterotrophs obtain organic molecules from

other organisms via different feeding
mechanisms and different food sources

• Consequently, heterotrophs can be

differentially classified according to their
feeding pattern
Consumers

Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by

ingestion

• Herbivores are consumers that feed principally on plant

matter (e.g. cows, sheep, rabbits)
• Carnivores are consumers that feed principally on animal
matter (e.g. crocodiles, wolves, tigers)
• Omnivores are consumers that have a principle diet
composed of both plant and animal matter (e.g. pandas,
humans)
Scavengers

• Scavengers are a type of consumer that

principally feed on dead and decaying
carcasses rather than hunting live prey

• Examples of scavengers include hyenas,

vultures and carrion birds (such as crows)
Detritivores

• Detritivores are a type of heterotroph that obtains

nutrients from non-living organic sources, such as detritus
and humus

• Detritus is dead, particulate organic matter – such as

decaying organic material and fecal matter
• Humus is the term given specifically to the decaying leaf
litter intermixed within the topsoil
• Detritivores include dung beetles, earthworms, woodlice,
snails and crabs
Saprotrophs

• Saprotrophs live on (or in) non-living organic matter, secrete

digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of
digestion

• Unlike other types of heterotrophs, saprotrophs do not ingest

food but use enzymatic secretion to facilitate external
digestion
• Because saprotrophs facilitate the breakdown of dead organic
material, they are commonly referred to as decomposers
• Examples of saprotrophs include bacteria and fungi
Nutrient Cycling
Understanding:
• The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling

Nutrients refer to the material required by an organism, and include elements such as carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus

• The supply of inorganic nutrients on Earth is finite – new elements cannot simply be created and so
are in limited supply

• Hence chemical elements are constantly recycled after they are used:

• Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the air, water and soil and convert them into organic
compounds
• Heterotrophs ingest these organic compounds and use them for growth and respiration, releasing
inorganic by products
• When organisms die, saprotrophs decompose the remains and free inorganic materials into the soil
• The return of inorganic nutrients to the soil ensures the continual supply of raw materials for the
autotrophs
The Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
Mesocosms
Understanding:
• Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time

Ecosystems describe the interaction between biotic components (i.e. communities) and
abiotic components (i.e. habitat)

• They are largely self-contained and have the capacity to be self-sustaining over long
periods of time

• There are three main components required for sustainability in an ecosystem:

• Energy availability – light from the sun provides the initial energy source for almost all
communities
• Nutrient availability – saprotrophic decomposers ensure the constant recycling of
inorganic nutrients within an environment
• Recycling of wastes – certain bacteria can detoxify harmful waste byproducts (e.g.
denitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas)
Skill:
• Setting up sealed mesocosms to try to establish sustainability

Mesocosms are enclosed environments that allow a small part of a

natural environment to be observed under controlled conditions

• A terrarium is a small transparent container (e.g. glass or plastic)

in which selected plants (or animals) are kept and observed

• Making a Self-Sustaining Terrarium

• A terrarium can be created using a glass or plastic bottle with a

lid, according to the following steps:
Building a Mesocosm

Building a verdant foundation

• Add a bottom layer of pebbles, gravel or sand – this layer exists for drainage (smaller
vessels require thinner rock layers)
• Add a second thin layer of activated charcoal – this will prevent mold and help to aerate
the soil
• Spread a thin cover of sphagnum moss (or use an organic coffee filter) to create a barrier
between the lower layers and soil
• The final layer is the pre-moistened growing medium (i.e. potting mix)

Selecting the right plants

• Ideally, choose plants that are both slow growing and thrive in a bit of humidity (e.g. most
ferns, club moss, etc.)
• Inspect the plant thoroughly for any signs of disease or insects before introducing to the
terrarium
Maintaining appropriate
conditions

Ensure the terrarium is placed in a

location that provides a continuous
source of light
Locate the terrarium in a place that
does not experience fluctuating
temperature conditions (i.e. avoid
direct sunlight)
Do not initially over-water the plants
– once the right humidity is
established, a terrarium can go months
without watering
Occasional pruning may be required
– however, as level of soil nutrients
decrease, plant growth should slow
down
Chi Squared Test
Skill: Testing for association between two species using the chi-squared test with data
obtained by quadrat sampling

• The presence of two species within a given

environment will be dependent upon potential
interactions between them

• If two species are typically found within the same

habitat, they show a positive association

• Species that show a positive association include those

that exhibit predator-prey or symbiotic relationships
• If two species tend not to occur within the same habitat, they show
a negative association

• Species will typically show a negative association if there is

competition for the same resources
• One species may utilise the resources more efficiently, precluding
survival of the other species (competitive exclusion)
• Both species may alter their use of the environment to avoid direct
competition (resource partitioning)

• If two species do not interact, there will be no association between

them and their distribution will be independent of one another
Quadrat Sampling

• The presence of two species within a given environment can

be determined using quadrat sampling

• A quadrat is a rectangular frame of known dimensions that

can be used to establish population densities
• Quadrats are placed inside a defined area in either a random
arrangement or according to a design (e.g. belted transect)
• The number of individuals of a given species is either
counted or estimated via percentage coverage
• The sampling process is repeated many times in order to
gain a representative data set
• Quadrat sampling is not an effective method
for counting motile organisms – it is used for
counting plants and sessile animals

• In each quadrat, the presence or absence of

each species is identified
• This allows for the number of quadrats where
both species were present to be compared
against the total number of quadrats
Chi-Squared Tests

• A chi-squared test can be applied to data generated from quadrat

sampling to determine if there is a statistically significant
association between the distribution of two species

• A chi-squared test can be completed by following five simple steps:

• Identify hypotheses (null versus alternative)

• Construct a table of frequencies (observed versus expected)
• Apply the chi-squared formula
• Determine the degree of freedom (df)
• Identify the p value (should be <0.05)
Skill:• Recognising and interpreting statistical
significance

• Example of Chi-Squared Test Application

• The presence or absence of two species of scallop was

recorded in fifty quadrats (1m2) on a rocky sea shore

• The following distribution pattern was observed:

• 6 quadrats = both species ; 15 quadrats = king scallop

only ; 20 quadrats = queen scallop only ; 9 quadrats =
neither species
Step 1: Identify hypotheses

• A chi-squared test seeks to distinguish between two

distinct possibilities and hence requires two
contrasting hypotheses:

• Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference

between the distribution of two species (i.e.
distribution is random)
• Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant
difference between the distribution of species (i.e.
species are associated)
Step 2: Construct a table of frequencies

• A table must be constructed that identifies expected

distribution frequencies for each species (for
comparison against observed)

• Expected frequencies are calculated according to the

following formula:

• Expected frequency = (Row total × Column total) ÷

Grand total
Step 4: Determine the degree of freedom (df)

• In order to determine if the chi-squared value is statistically significant a degree of

freedom must first be identified

• The degree of freedom is a mathematical restriction that designates what range of

values fall within each significance level

• The degree of freedom is calculated from the table of frequencies according to the
following formula:

• df = (m – 1) (n – 1)

• Where: m = number of rows ; n = number of columns

• When the distribution patterns for two species are being compared, the degree of
freedom should always be 1
• When df = 1, a value of greater than 3.841 is required for results to be
considered statistically significant (p < 0.05)

• A value of 7.90 lies above a p value of 0.01, meaning there is less than a 1%
probability results are caused by chance
• Hence, the difference between observed and expected frequencies are
statistically significant

• As the results are statistically significant, the null hypothesis is rejected and the
alternate hypothesis accepted:

• Alternate hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference between observed

and expected frequencies
• Because the two species do not tend to be present in the same area, we can
infer there is a negative association between them
Practice Question
• Two species of fir tree are found along the coast of
Southern California.
• These two tree species are the Grand Fir (Abies
grandis) and the Noble Fir (Abies procera).
• Their distribution patterns were establsihed via 150
quadrat samples, yielding the following results: 25 =
both present ; 30 = Noble Fir only ; 45 = Grand Fir
only ; 50 neither present
• Activity: Use the chi-squared test to determine if
these two plant species show association.
Energy Source
• All green plants, and some bacteria, are photoautotrophic – they use sunlight as a source of
energy

• This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities
• In a few ecosystems the producers are chemoautotrophic bacteria, which use energy derived
from chemical processes

• Light energy is absorbed by photoautotrophs and is converted into chemical energy via
photosynthesis

• This light energy is used to make organic compounds (e.g. sugars) from inorganic sources (e.g.
CO2)
• Heterotrophs ingest these organic compounds in order to derive their chemical energy (ATP)
• When organic compounds are broken down via cell respiration, ATP is produced to fuel
metabolic processes
Energy Flow

• Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight, where it is converted into chemical energy
by producers (via photosynthesis)

• This chemical energy is stored in carbon compounds (organic molecules) and is

transferred to heterotrophs via feeding

Trophic Levels

• The position an organism occupies within a feeding sequence is known as a trophic

level

• Producers always occupy the first trophic level in a feeding sequence

• Primary consumers feed on producers and hence occupy the second trophic level
• Further consumers (e.g. secondary, tertiary, etc.) may occupy subsequent trophic
levels
Food Chains

• A food chain shows the linear feeding relationships

between species in a community

• Arrows represent the transfer of energy and matter as

one organism is eaten by another (arrows point in
direction of energy flow)
• The first organism in a food chain is always a
producer, followed by consumers (primary, secondary,
tertiary, etc.)
Grassland food chain
Pond food chain
Marine food chain
Energy Loss
• Energy stored in organic molecules (e.g. sugars and lipids) can be released
by cell respiration to produce ATP

• This ATP is then used to fuel metabolic reactions required for growth and
homeostasis
• A by-product of these chemical reactions is heat (thermal energy), which is
released from the organism

• Not all energy stored in organic molecules is transferred via heterotrophic

feeding – some of the chemical energy is lost by:

• Being excreted as part of the organism’s faeces

• Remaining unconsumed as the uneaten portions of the food
• The chemical energy produced by an organism can be converted into a number of
forms, including:

• Kinetic energy (e.g. during muscular contractions)

• Electrical energy (e.g. during the transmission of nerve impulses)
• Light energy (e.g. producing bioluminescence)

• All of these reactions are exothermic and release thermal energy (heat) as a by-product

• Living organisms cannot turn this heat into other forms of usable energy
• This heat energy is released from the organism and is lost from the ecosystem (unlike
nutrients, which are recycled)
• Hence ecosystems require a continuous influx of energy from an external source
(such as the sun)
Energy Efficiency

• When energy transformations take place in living

organisms the process is never 100% efficient

• Most of the energy is lost to the organism – either used in

respiration, released as heat, excreted in faeces or
unconsumed
• Typically energy transformations are ~10% efficient, with
about 90% of available energy lost between trophic levels
• The amount of energy transferred depends on how
efficiently organisms can capture and use energy (usually
between 5 – 20%)
Energy Efficiency

• As energy is lost between trophic levels, higher trophic levels store less energy as carbon compounds and
so have less biomass

• Biomass is the total mass of a group of organisms – consisting of the carbon compounds contained in the
cells and tissues
• Because carbon compounds store energy, scientists can measure the amount of energy added to
organisms as biomass
• Biomass diminishes along food chains with the loss of carbon dioxide, water and waste products (e.g.
urea) to the environment

• Because energy and biomass is lost between each level of a food chain, the number of potential trophic
levels are limited

• Higher trophic levels receive less energy / biomass from feeding and so need to eat larger quantities to
obtain sufficient amounts
• Because higher trophic levels need to eat more, they expend more energy (and biomass) hunting for food
• If the energy required to hunt food exceeds the energy available from the food eaten, the trophic level
becomes unviable
 Pyramid of Energy
• A pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the
amount of energy at each trophic level of a food chain
• They are expressed in units of energy per area per time (e.g.
kJ m–2 year–1)
• Pyramids of energy will never appear inverted as some of the
energy stored in one source is always lost upon transfer
• Each level should be roughly one tenth of the size of the
preceding level (as energy transformations are ~10% efficient)
• The bottom level will always represent the producers, with
subsequent levels representing consumers (primary,
secondary, etc.)
 Biomass
• Biomass refers to the dried mass of organic material that
can be used as fuel in an ecosystem. The
biomass pyramid shows the dried mass of the living
organisms at each trophic level and  the energy within
them. Biomass pyramids are usually larger at the base
than the top because they have more producers than
consumers.  As one moves along a terrestrial food chain,
biomass decreases because of the loss of carbon dioxide,
water, urea and other waste products. However, in the
example below you can see that there are exceptions to
this model depending on the ecosystem.
Types of pyramid
 Carbon Cycle
• The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle whereby carbon is exchanged
between the different spheres of the Earth
• The four spheres are the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (ground),
hydrosphere (water / oceans) and biosphere (living things)
• Carbon is exchanged between a variety of forms, including:
• Atmospheric gases – mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), but also methane (CH4)
• Oceanic carbonates – including bicarbonates dissolved in the water and
calcium carbonate in corals and shells
• As organic materials – including the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
found in all living things
• As non-living remains – such as detritus and fossil fuels
• Different processes facilitate the cycling of carbon between the different
forms (e.g. feeding, combustion, etc.)
 Aquatic Conversions

• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and some of it will remain as

a dissolved gas, however the remainder will combine with
water to form carbonic acid  (CO2 + H2O  ⇄  H2CO3)
• Carbonic acid will then dissociate to form hydrogen carbonate
ions  (H2CO3  ⇄  HCO3– + H+)
• This conversion also releases hydrogen ions (H+), which is why
pH changes when CO2 is dissolved in water (> acidic)
•
Autotrophs absorb both dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen
carbonate ions and use them to produce organic compounds 
• Methane is produced from organic matter in
anaerobic conditions by methanogenic
archaeans and some  diffuses into the
atmosphere or accumulates in the ground
• Methanogens are archaean microorganisms that produce
methane (CH4) as a metabolic by-product in anaerobic conditions
• Anaerobic conditions where methanogens may be found include:
• Wetlands (e.g. swamps and marshes)
• Marine sediments (e.g. in the mud of lake beds)
• Digestive tract of ruminant animals (e.g. cows, sheep, goats)
• Methanogens produce methane from the by-products of
anaerobic digestion, principally acetic acid and carbon dioxide:
• Acetic acid → Methane and Carbon Dioxide  (CH3COO– + H+  → 
CH4 + CO2)
• Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen → Methane and Water  (CO2 + 4 H2
 →  CH4 + 2 H2O)
• Methane may either accumulate under the
ground or diffuse into the atmosphere
• When organic matter is buried in anoxic
conditions (e.g. sea beds), deposits of
methane (natural gas) may form underground
• Rising global numbers of domesticated cattle
may be increasing the levels of methane being
released into the atmosphere
Carbon Fluxes

• Application:  Estimation of carbon fluxes due to

processes in the carbon cycle
• Carbon fluxes describe the rate of exchange of
carbon between the various carbon sinks / reservoirs
• There are four main carbon sinks – lithosphere (earth
crust), hydrosphere (oceans), atmosphere (air),
biosphere (organisms)
• The rate at which carbon is exchanged between these reservoirs depends on the
conversion processes involved:
• Photosynthesis – removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and fixes it in producers as
organic compounds 
• Respiration – releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when organic compounds are
digested in living organisms
• Decomposition – releases carbon products into the air or sediment when organic matter is
recycled after death of an organism
• Gaseous dissolution – the exchange of carbon gases between the ocean and atmosphere
• Lithification – the compaction of carbon-containing sediments into fossils and rocks within
the Earth’s crust (e.g. limestone)
• Combustion – releases carbon gases when organic hydrocarbons (coal, oil and gas) are
burned as a fuel source
• It is not possible to directly measure the size of the carbon
sinks or the fluxes between them – instead estimates are
made
• Global carbon fluxes are very large and are therefore
measured in gigatonnes (1 gigatonne of carbon = 1 billion
metric tonnes)
• Because carbon fluxes are large and based on
measurements from many different sources, estimates
have large uncertainties 
• Estimating carbon fluxes requires an understanding of the factors that can affect the
exchange of carbon between different sinks
• Some of the main causes for flux change include climate conditions, natural events
and human activity 
•
Climate Conditions
• Rates of photosynthesis will likely by higher in summer seasons, as there is more
direct sunlight and longer days
• Oceanic temperatures also determine how much carbon is stored as dissolved CO2 or
as hydrogen bicarbonate ions
• Climate events like El Nino and La Nina will change the rate of carbon flux between
ocean and atmosphere
• Melting of polar ice caps will result in the decomposition of frozen detritus
• Natural Events
• Forest fires can release high levels of carbon dioxide when plants burn (loss of
trees also reduces photosynthetic carbon uptake)
• Volcanic eruptions can release carbon compounds from the Earth’s crust into the
atmosphere
•
Human Activity
• Clearing of trees for agricultural purposes (deforestation) will reduce the
removal of atmospheric CO2 via photosynthesis
• Increased numbers of ruminant livestock (e.g. cows) will produce higher levels of
methane
• The burning of fossil fuels will release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Application:
•  Analysis of data from air monitoring stations to explain annual
fluctuations

• Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have been measured at the Mauna

Loa Observatory (in Hawaii) since 1958 by Charles Keeling
• From these continuous and regular measurements a clear pattern of
carbon flux can be seen:
• CO2 levels fluctuate annually (lower in the summer months when long
days and more light increase photosynthetic rates)
• Global CO2 trends will conform to northern hemisphere patterns as it
contains more of the planet’s land mass (i.e. more trees)
• CO2 levels are steadily increasing year on year since the industrial
revolution (due to increased burning of fossil fuels)
• Atmospheric CO2 levels are currently at the highest levels recorded
since measurements began