The Nervous System

Nervous System and Senses

The nervous system consists of two types of cells.
Nerve cells are called neurons.
Various support cells are associated with the
neurons, most typically, Schwann cells.
The parts of a neuron include the dendrite which
receives the impulse (from another nerve cell or
from a sensory organ), the cell body (numbers of
which side-by-side form gray matter) where the
nucleus is found, and the axon which carries the
impulse away from the cell.
Wrapped around the axon are the Schwann cells,
and the spaces/junctions between Schwann cells
are called nodes of Ranvier.
Collectively, the Schwann cells make up the
myelin sheath (numbers of which side-by-side
form white matter).
Schwann cells wrap around the axon (like the
camp food, “pigs in a blanket”).
Having an intact myelin sheath and nodes of
Ranvier are critical to proper travel of the nerve
impulse.
Diseases which destroy the myelin sheath
(demyelinating disorders) can cause paralysis or
other problems.
Schwann cells are analogous to the insulation on
electrical wires, and just as electrical wires short
out if there’s a problem with the insulation, so
also, neurons cannot function properly without
intact myelin sheaths.
 The nervous system has three basic functions:

1. Sensory neurons receive information from the

sensory receptors.

2. Interneurons transfer and interpret impulses.

3. Motor neurons send appropriate impulses/

instructions to the muscles and glands.
A nerve impulse is an electrical charge that travels
down the cell membrane of a neuron’s dendrite
and/or axon through the action of the Na-K
pump.
The inside of a neuron’s cell membrane is
negatively-charged while the outside is positively-
charged.
When sodium and potassium ions change places,
this reverses the inner and outer charges causing
the nerve impulse to travel down the membrane.
A nerve impulse is “all-or-none:” it either goes or
not, and there’s no halfway.
A neuron needs a threshold stimulus, the
minimum level of stimulus needed, to trigger the
Na-K pump to go and the impulse to travel.
A neuron cannot immediately fire again; it needs
time for the sodium and potassium to return to
their places and everything to return to normal.
This time is called the refractory period.
A junction between two nerve cells or a nerve and
a muscle cell is called a synapse.
In a synapse, various chemicals are used to
transfer the impulse across the gap to the next cell.
These are collectively known as
neurotransmitters, and include such chemicals
as dopamine (brain levels of which are low in
Parkinson’s disease), serotonin, and
acetylcholine (levels of which are low in
myasthenia gravis).
Introduction to the Nervous System and Nerve Tissue
 Nervous System Function
Somatic NS Autonomic NS
voluntary muscles Vs visceral/smooth and
and reflexes cardiac muscle
Sympathetic Parasympa
NS thetic NS
increases decreases
energy energy
expenditure expenditure
prepares for gains stored
action energy
These have the opposite
effects on the same organs
 Peripheral NS Vs Central NS (CNS)
(PNS) interneurons: brain and spine
sensory and motor
neurons
covered with three membranes,
the meninges
inflammation of these is called
meningitis
brain has gray matter on
outside and white in center
spine has white matter on
outside and gray in center
General Functions of the Nervous
System
Sensory receptors at the ends of peripheral nerves
gather information and convert it into nerve
impulses.

When sensory impulses are integrated in the brain

as perceptions, this is the integrative function of
the nervous system.

Conscious or subconscious decisions follow,

leading to motor functions via effectors.
 Neuron Structure
A neuron has a cell body with mitochondria,
lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus, Nissl bodies
containing rough endoplasmic reticulum, and
neurofibrils.
Nerve fibers include a solitary axon and numerous
dendrites.
Branching dendrites carry impulses from other
neurons (or from receptors) toward the cell
body.
The axon transmits the impulse away from the
axonal hillock of the cell body and may give off
side branches.
Larger axons are enclosed by sheaths of myelin
provided by Schwann cells and are myelinated
fibers.
 The outer layer of myelin is surrounded by a
neurilemma (neurilemmal sheath) made up of
the cytoplasm and nuclei of the Schwann cell.
Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath between
Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier.

The smallest axons lack a myelin sheath and are

unmyelinated fibers.
White matter in the CNS is due to myelin sheaths in
this area.
Unmyelinated nerve tissue in the CNS appears gray.
Types of Neurons & Neuroglial Cells
Neurons can be grouped in two ways: on the basis
of structural differences (bipolar, unipolar, and
multipolar neurons), and by functional differences
(sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor
neurons).
Classification of Neurons:
Bipolar neurons are found in the eyes, nose, and
ears, and have a single axon and a single dendrite
extending from opposite sides of the cell body.

Unipolar neurons are found in ganglia outside the

CNS and have an axon and a dendrite arising
from a single short fiber extending from the cell
body.

Multipolar neurons have many nerve fibers

arising from their cell bodies and are commonly
found in the brain and spinal cord.
Introduction to the Nervous System and Nerve Tissue
Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) conduct
impulses from peripheral receptors to the CNS
and are usually unipolar, although some are
bipolar neurons.

Interneurons are multipolar neurons lying within

the CNS that form links between other neurons.

Motor neurons are multipolar neurons that

conduct impulses from the CNS to effectors.
Classification of Neuroglial Cells
Neuroglial cells fill spaces, support neurons,
provide structural frameworks, produce myelin,
and carry on phagocytosis.
Schwann cells are the meylin-roducing neuroglia of
the peripheral nervous system; other types are
components of the central nervous system.
Microglial cells are small cells that phagocytize
bacterial cells and cellular debris.

Oligodendrocytes form myelin in the brain and

spinal cord.
Astrocytes
• create supportive
framework for neurons
• create “blood-brain
barrier”
• monitor & regulate
interstitial fluid surrounding
neurons
• secrete chemicals for
embryological neuron
formation
• stimulate the formation of
scar tissue secondary to
CNS injury
Oligodendrocytes
• create myelin sheath
around axons of neurons
in the CNS. Myelinated
axons transmit impulses
faster than unmyelinated
axons
Microglia
• “brain macrophages”
• phagocytize cellular
wastes & pathogens
Ependymal cells
• line ventricles of brain &
central canal of spinal cord
• produce, monitor & help
circulate CSF
(cerebrospinal fluid)
Astrocytes are near blood vessels and support
structures, aid in metabolism, and respond to brain
injury by filling in spaces.

Ependyma cover the inside of ventricles and form

choroid plexuses within the ventricles.
Schwann cells
• surround all axons of neurons
in the PNS creating a
neurilemma around them.
Neurilemma allows for potential
regeneration of damaged axons
• creates myelin sheath around
most axons of PNS

Satellite cells
• support groups of cell bodies
of neurons within ganglia of the
PNS
 Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is conducted as action potential
is reached at the trigger zone and spreads by a
local current flowing down the fiber, and adjacent
areas of the membrane reach action potential.
Impulse Conduction
Unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses over
their entire membrane surface.
Myelinated fibers conduct impulses from node
of Ranvier to node of Ranvier, a phenomenon
called saltatory conduction.
Saltatory conduction is many times faster than
conduction on unmyelinated neurons.
All-or-None Response
If a nerve fiber responds at all to a stimulus, it
responds completely by conducting an
impulse (all-or-none response).

Greater intensity of stimulation triggers more

impulses per second, not stronger impulses.
 The Synapse
The junction between two communicating neurons is
called a synapse; there exists a synaptic cleft
between them across which the impulse must be
conveyed.
Synaptic Transmission
The process by which the impulse in the presynaptic
neuron is transmitted across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic neuron is called synaptic transmission.
When an impulse reaches the synaptic knobs of an axon,
synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
The neurotransmitter reacts with specific receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane.
 Impulse Processing
How impulses are processed is dependent upon how
neurons are organized in the brain and spinal cord.
Neuronal Pools
Neurons within the CNS are organized into neuronal
pools with varying numbers of cells.
Each pool receives input from afferent nerves and
processes the information according to the special
characteristics of the pool.

Facilitation
A particular neuron of a pool may receive excitatory or
inhibitory stimulation; if the net effect is excitatory but
subthreshold, the neuron becomes more excitable to
incoming stimulation (a condition called facilitation).
Convergence
A single neuron within a pool may receive impulses
from two or more fibers (convergence), which makes
it possible for the neuron to summate impulses from
different sources.

Divergence
Impulses leaving a neuron in a pool may be passed into
several output fibers (divergence), a pattern that serves
to amplify an impulse.
 Types of Nerves
A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers held together
by layers of connective tissue.
Nerves can be sensory, motor, or mixed, carrying
both sensory and motor fibers.
 Nerve Pathways
The routes nerve impulses travel are called
pathways, the simplest of which is a reflex arc.
Reflex Arcs
A reflex arc includes a sensory receptor, a sensory
neuron, an interneuron in the spinal cord, a motor
neuron, and an effector.

Reflex Behavior
Reflexes are automatic, subconscious responses to
stimuli that help maintain homeostasis (heart rate,
blood pressure, etc.) and carry out automatic
responses (vomiting, sneezing, swallowing, etc.).
The knee-jerk reflex (patellar tendon reflex) is an
example of a monosynaptic reflex (no interneuron).

The withdrawal reflex involves sensory neurons,

interneurons, and motor neurons.
At the same time, the antagonistic extensor muscles
are inhibited.
 Cerebrum -The largest division of the brain. It is
divided into two hemispheres, each of which is
divided into four lobes.

Cerebrum
Cerebrum

Cerebellum

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of gray
matter making up the superficial aspect of the
cerebrum.

Cerebral Cortex

Cerebral Cortex

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Cerebral Features:
• Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain.

• Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri

– Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal
Lobe

• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large

regions/lobes of the brain
– Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres

– Transverse Fissure – Separates the Cerebrum from the

Cerebellum

– Sylvian/Lateral Fissure – Divides the Temporal Lobe from the

Frontal and Parietal Lobes
 Gyri (ridge)

Sulci
(groove)

Fissure
(deep groove)

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
Specific Sulci/Fissures:

Central Sulcus

Longitudinal Fissure

Sylvian/Lateral
Fissure

Transverse Fissure

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 Lobes of the Brain (4)
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal

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* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the fifth lobe. It is located deep
to the Temporal Lobe.
 Lobes of the Brain - Frontal
• The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Frontal Bone of the skull.
• It plays an integral role in the following functions/actions:
- Memory Formation
- Emotions
- Decision Making/Reasoning
- Personality

(Investigation: Phineas
Investigation (PhineasGage)
Gage)

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 Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus) – Cortical site
involved with controlling movements of the body.
• Broca’s Area – Controls facial neurons, speech, and language
comprehension. Located on Left Frontal Lobe.
– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to comprehend speech, but
the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak and form words.

• Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies

* Desired Effects: * Possible Side Effects:
- Diminished Rage - Epilepsy
- Decreased Aggression - Poor Emotional Responses
- Poor Emotional - Perseveration (Uncontrolled, repetitive
Responses actions, gestures, or words)

• Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for sensation of Smell

 Investigation (Phineas Gage)

Primary Motor
Cortex/ Precentral
Gyrus

Broca’s Area

Orbitofrontal
Cortex

Olfactory Bulb

Regions

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 Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe
• The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Parietal Bone of the skull.

• It plays a major role in the following functions/actions:

- Senses and integrates sensation(s)

- Spatial awareness and perception

(Proprioception - Awareness of
body/ body parts in space and
in relation to each other)

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 Parietal Lobe - Cortical Regions

• Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral

Gyrus) – Site involved with processing of tactile
and proprioceptive information.

• Somatosensory Association Cortex - Assists

with the integration and interpretation of
sensations relative to body position and orientation
in space. May assist with visuo-motor coordination.

• Primary Gustatory Cortex – Primary site

involved with the interpretation of the sensation of
Taste.
Primary
Somatosensory
Cortex/
Postcentral Gyrus

Somatosensory
Association Cortex

Primary
Gustatory Cortex

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Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Occipital Lobe
• The Occipital Lobe of the
Brain is located deep to the
Occipital Bone of the Skull.

• Its primary function is the

processing, integration,
interpretation, etc. of VISION and
visual stimuli.

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 Occipital Lobe – Cortical Regions

• Primary Visual Cortex – This is the primary

area of the brain responsible for sight -
recognition of size, color, light, motion,
dimensions, etc.

• Visual Association Area – Interprets

information acquired through the primary visual
cortex.
Primary Visual
Cortex

Visual
Association Area

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Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Temporal Lobe
• The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of the
brain, deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.

• They play an integral role

in the following functions:
- Hearing
- Organization/Comprehension
of language
- Information Retrieval
(Memory and Memory Formation)

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8.tif.jpg
 Temporal Lobe – Cortical Regions
• Primary Auditory Cortex – Responsible for hearing

• Primary Olfactory Cortex – Interprets the sense of

smell once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory
bulbs. (Not visible on the superficial cortex)

• Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension.

Located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
- Wernicke’s Aphasia – Language comprehension is
inhibited. Words and sentences are not clearly understood,
and sentence formation may be inhibited or non-sensical.
Primary
Auditory Cortex

Wernike’s Area

Primary Olfactory
Cortex (Deep)
Conducted from Olfactory Bulb

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• Arcuate Fasciculus - A white matter tract that connects Broca’s Area and
Wernicke’s Area through the Temporal, Parietal and Frontal Lobes. Allows
for coordinated, comprehensible speech. Damage may result in:
- Conduction Aphasia - Where auditory comprehension and speech
articulation are preserved, but people find it difficult to repeat heard speech.

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Click the Region to see its Name

Korbinian Broadmann - Learn about the man who divided the Cerebral Cortex into 52 distinct regions:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann
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 GROSS ANATOMY OF CEREBELLUM
Location:
 The term cerebellum is from
“latin meaning” the little brain.It
is a part of the hindbrain situated
in the posterior cranial fossa.
 It is also present behind the pons
and medulla ablongata,seperated
from two structures by the cavity
of fourth ventricle.
 It is covered by tentorium
cerebelli and is connected to
brain stem by three cerebellar
peduncles.
 In adults the weight ratio between
cerebellum and cerebrum is
1:10,Infants 1:20
Anatomy of cerebellum......contd.

Consists of two laterally, large

Hemisphere Horizontal
hemisphere which are united by midline fissure
vermis.

Cerebellar surface is divided by

numerous curve transverse fissures giving Superior surface
it a laminated appearance

One conspicious fissure “horizontal

fissure”extends around dorsolateral border Verm
of each hemisphere from middle cerebellar is
peduncle to vallecula,seperating superior
and inferior surface
 External surface of cerebellum
Primary fissure

The deepest fissure in the vermis

is primary fissure, which curves
ventrolaterally in the superior
surface of the cerebellum to meet
horizontal fissure.

Primary fissure divides the

cerebellum into anterior and
posterior lobe. Anterior lobe
Primary fissure

Posterior lobe
External surface of cerebellum
Horizontal fissure

An be
lo
te
Po

ri
st

or

vermi
Primary fissure
er
io
r

s
lo
be

Hemisphere
 Arbor vitae cerebelli
Arbor
vitae
•In latin “ tree of life” it is the white matter
of the white matter of cerebellum.

•It is so called because of the tree like

appearance.

•It brings sensory and motor

sensation to and from cerebellum.

Fourth ventricle
 Anterior view of brainstem
basal ganglia
internal capsule

optic chiasm

optic nerve
optic tract

hypothalamus
mammillary body

cerebral peduncle
pons
interpeduncular fossa

flocculus
inferior olivary
nuclear complex
cerebellar tonsil
cerebellum
pyramidal decussation
pyramid
 Lateral view of brainstem
cerebral
optic tract
peduncle trigeminal nerve

optic nerve
middle cerebellar peduncle
optic chiasm
vestibulocochlear nerve

hypothalamus flocculus
cuneate tubercle
pons inferior olivary nuclear complex

anterior median fissure pyramid

 Posterior view of brainstem

Superior colliculus
Cerebral peduncle Inferior colliculus

Superior cerebellar
peduncle

Middle cerebellar 4th ventricle

peduncle

Inferior cerebellar
peduncle

Medulla
 
The brain has a
series of ventricles
that hold CSF
(Cerebrospinal
Fluid).
• CSF is created by the
choroid plexus and
circulates through the
ventricles until it is
absorbed by the
arachnoid layer.
• CSF seems to
1. act as a fluid cushion for the brain
2. transports some substances into/out of the brain
3. maintains pressure around the brain.
 BRAIN • The brain is bathed by the
cerebrospinal fluid
VENTRICLES •
(CSF)
Inside the brain, there are
spaces (ventricles) filled
with CSF
• There are 4 ventricles
– 2 lateral ventricles
are in the brain
hemispheres
– 3rd ventricle is in the
diencephalon
– 4th ventricle is
between the pons,
medulla and the
cerebellum
• They are connected by
– The foramen of monro
(lateral -> third),
– Cerebral aqueduct
( third -> fourth), and
– The foramen of
magendie and luschka
(fourth -> subarachnoid
space/cisterna magna). 
 • Definition :
• It is the cavity of Lateral Ventricle
the cerebral
hemisphere.
• It is C-shaped.
• It has 3 horns &
central part.
• Anterior Horn:
in the frontal
lobe.
• Posterior horn:
in the occipital
lobe
• Inferior horn:
in temporal lobe.
• Central part or
body: in the
parietal lobe.
 Lateral Ventricle
• Superior view of the
ventricular system.
• Lateral ventricle
• Anterior horn in the frontal
lobe.
• Posterior horn in the
occipital lobe.
• Inferior horn in the temporal
lobe.
• Body: In the parietal lobe.
• The inferior and posterior
horns are connected in the
trigon.
 Diencephalon
 Paired structure
 Located between the
brain stem and the
cerebral hemisphere
 Continuous with the
rostral part of the mb
p
midbrain C
mo
 Forms the lateral wall of
the 3rd ventricle
• Almost entirely
surrounded by the
cerebral hemispheres
• A little part seen
externally on the base
of the brain caudal to
optic chiasma, includes:
tc I
• Infundibulum
mb
• Tuber cinerium
• Mamillary bodies
• Other parts seen on
sagittal & coronal
sections
 Fornix
• On the medial
surface, the
diencephalon is
subdivided, by CC
hypothalamic
sulcus Dorsal
(indicated by
black line) into: Ventral

 Dorsal part
 Ventral part
Optic chiasma Midbrain Cerebral
aqueduct
 Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by
membranes called meninges that lie between the
bone and the soft tissues.
The outermost meninx is made up of tough, white
dense connective tissue, contains many blood
vessels, and is called the dura mater.
It forms the inner periosteum of the skull bones.
In some areas, the dura mater forms partitions between
lobes of the brain, and in others, it forms dural sinuses.
The sheath around the spinal cord is separated from
the vertebrae by an epidural space.
The middle meninx, the arachnoid mater, is thin
and lacks blood vessels.
It does not follow the convolutions of the brain.
Between the arachnoid and pia maters is a
subarachnoid space containing cerebrospinal fluid.

The innermost pia mater is thin and contains many

blood vessels and nerves.
It is attached to the surface of the brain and spinal
cord and follows their contours.
Meninges
 Spinal Cord
The spinal cord begins at the base of the brain and
extends as a slender cord to the level of the 
intervertebral disk between the first and second
lumbar vertebrae.
Structure of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord consists of 31segments, each of
which gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves.
A cervical enlargement gives rise to nerves leading to
the upper limbs, and a lumbar enlargement gives rise
to those innervating the lower limbs.
Two deep longitudinal grooves (anterior median
fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord
into right and left halves.
White matter, made up of bundles of myelinated
nerve fibers (nerve tracts), surrounds a butterfly-
shaped core of gray matter housing interneurons.
A central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Functions of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord has two major functions: to
transmit impulses to and from the brain, and
to house spinal reflexes.
Tracts carrying sensory information to the
brain are called ascending tracts; descending
tracts carry motor information from the
brain.
The names that identify nerve tracts identify
the origin and termination of the fibers in
the tract.
Many spinal reflexes also pass through the
spinal cord.
 Peripheral Nervous System
1. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists
of the cranial and spinal nerves that arise from
the central nervous system and travel to the
remainder of the body.
2. The PNS is made up of the somatic nervous
system that oversees voluntary activities, and
the autonomic nervous system that controls
involuntary activities.
Cranial Nerves
12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from the underside of
the brain, most of which are mixed nerves.
The 12 pairs are designated by number and name and
include the olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear,
trigenimal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear,
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal
nerves.
Spinal Nerves
1. 31 pairs of mixed nerves make up the spinal nerves.
2. Spinal nerves are grouped according to the level from
which they arise and are numbered in sequence,
beginning with those in the cervical region.
3. Each spinal nerve arises from two roots: a dorsal, or
sensory, root, and a ventral, or motor, root.
4. The main branches of some spinal nerves form plexuses.
5. Cervical Plexuses – Lie on either side of the neck and
supply muscles and skin of the neck.
6. Brachial Plexuses – Arise from lower cervical and upper
thoracic nerves and lead to the upper limbs.
7. Lumbrosacral Plexuses – Arise from the lower spinal
cord and lead to the lower abdomen, external genitalia,
buttocks, and legs.
 Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system has the task of
maintaining homeostasis of visceral activities
without conscious effort.
 General Characteristics
The autonomic nervous system includes two
divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions, which exert opposing effects on target
organs.
The parasympathetic division operates under
normal conditions.
The sympathetic division operates under
conditions of stress or emergency.
 Autonomic Nerve Fibers
In the autonomic motor system, motor pathways
include two fibers: a preganglionic fiber that
leaves the CNS, and a postganglionic fiber that
innervates the effector.

Sympathetic Division
Fibers in the sympathetic division arise from the
thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, and
synapse in paravertebral ganglia close to the vertebral
column.
Postganglionic axons lead to an effector organ.
Parasympathetic Division – Fibers in the
parasympathetic division arise from the brainstem
and sacral region of the spinal cord, and synapse
in ganglia close to the effector organ.
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
1. Preganglionic fibers (PF) of both sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions release acetylcholine.
Parasympathetic PF are cholinergic fibers and
release acetylcholine.
2. Sympathetic postganglionic fibers are adrenergic
and release norepinephrine.
3. The effects of these two divisions, based on the
effects of releasing different neurotransmitters to
the effector, are generally antagonistic.
 The sympathetic
system.
Preganglionic
fibers, solid line;
post ganglionic
fibers, broken lines.
6. Control of Autonomic Activity
   a. The autonomic nervous system is largely
controlled by reflex centers in the brain and spinal
cord.
   b. The limbic system and cerebral cortex alter
the reactions of the autonomic nervous system
through emotional influence.