CHAPTER 2

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

of Farm Animals
 Anatomy
• Refer to the science that deals with
the form and structure of all
organisms.
• From the Latin word “ana” means
again or go back and “tome”
meaning to cut which implies to
“cut again” or “go back and cut”.
• The study of the structure of the
animal body and the relationship of
its many parts.
 Physiology
• The study of the integrated
functions of the body and the
functions of all its parts (systems,
organs, tissues, cells, and cell
components), including biophysical
and biochemical processes.
• The study of the functions of living
things.
 Specialized Branches of Anatomy
Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy - the study of the form and relationships (relative

positions) of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided eye.
Comparative Anatomy - is a study of the structures of various species of animals,

with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in classification.

 Specialized Branches of Anatomy
• Embryology - the study of the developmental anatomy, covering the period from conception
(fertilization of the egg) to birth.
• Microscopic Anatomy - the study of tissues and cells that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope.
• Ultra structural cytology - deals with the portions of cells and tissues as they are visualized with the aid
of the electron microscope.
• Microscopic Anatomy: Animal Cells
and Tissues
Cells are small units constructed all
living things of both plants and
animals.
Cell membrane always surrounds a
typical eukaryotic cell.
Cytoplasm a liquid‐like where all
organelles of the cell are suspended
Nucleus the most important
membrane bound organelle and the
defining feature of eukaryotic cells,
that contains the genetic material for
the organism
Tissues a group of specialized cells. The primary types of
tissues include:
1. epithelial tissues, which cover the surface of the body,
line body cavities, and form glands;
2. connective tissues, which support and bind other
tissues together and from which, in the case of bone
marrow, the formed elements of the blood are derived;
3. muscle tissues, which specialize in contracting; and
4. nervous tissues, which conduct impulses from one part
of the body to another.
• Organs, various tissues associated in functional groups
• System, a group of organs that participate in a common
enterprise
*Digestive system *Respiratory *Urinary *Reproductive
*Endocrine *Nervous *Integumentary *Cardio
*Lymphatic
 Unit I
The Nervous
System
The Nervous System consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the peripheral
nerves, which connect the various parts of the body to either the brain or spinal cord. A
variety of cell types are found within the nervous system, but the primary functional cell
is the neuron. A major function of the other cell types (the glia) appears to be to maintain
the cellular environment to support the activity of the neurons.
 Two parts of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS) - which includes the brain and spinal cord.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - which largely consists of cranial nerves and spinal nerves going
to and from somatic (body) structures.
 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body
and mind. The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of
our external environment, and the origin of control over body
movement.
• THE BRAIN
 The function of the brain is to control and coordinate all the activities of
the normal body. The brain is a hollow, swollen structure lying within the
cranial cavity of the skull, which protects it from mechanical damage.
Three distinct areas: 1. forebrain 2. midbrain 3. hindbrain
 FORE BRAIN: This consists of the cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
The cerebrum - or right and left cerebral hemispheres — takes up the
greater part of the forebrain and contains up to 90% of all the neurons in
the entire nervous system. The surface of the hemispheres is deeply
folded, which enables a large surface area to be enclosed within the small
cranial cavity and allows nutrients in the CSF to reach the cell bodies of
neurons lying deep inside the brain tissue. The thalamus is found deep in
the tissue of the posterior part of the forebrain. Its function is to process
information from the sense organs and relay it to the cerebral cortex. The
hypothalamus lies ventral to the thalamus.
Midbrain is a short length of brain lying between
the forebrain and the hindbrain. It is overhung by
the cerebral hemispheres and is not easy to see in
the gross specimen. It acts as a pathway for fibres
running from the hindbrain to the forebrain
carrying the senses of hearing and sight.

Hindbrain consists of the cerebellum, pons and

medulla oblongata. The cerebellum lies on the
dorsal surface of the hindbrain. Its name means
‘little brain’ as it was originally thought to be a
smaller version of the cerebrum. It has a globular
appearance and is covered in deep fissures. The
cerebellum controls balance and coordination. It
receives information from the semicircular canals
of the inner ear and muscle spindles within
skeletal muscles. Voluntary movements are
initiated by the cerebrum and fine adjustments
are made and coordinated by the cerebellum.
The pons lies ventral to the cerebellum and forms a
bridge of nerve fibres between the cerebellar
hemispheres. It contains centres that control
respiration.
The medulla oblongata extends from the pons and
merges into the spinal cord. It contains centers
responsible for the control of respiration and blood
pressure.

THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is a glistening white tube running

from the medulla oblongata of the brain to the level
of the sixth or seventh lumbar vertebra, where it
breaks up into several terminal spinal nerves forming
a structure known as the cauda equine.
 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves given off from the CNS. These are the:
- Cranial nerves: leaving the brain
- Spinal nerves: leaving the spinal cord
- Autonomic nervous system: contains some nerve fibers from the brain, but most
nerves arise from the spinal
Cranial nerves The 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from the
brain and leave the cranial cavity by various foramina
which are mainly on the ventral surface of the skull. The
majority of these nerves supply structures around the head
and are relatively short, but some supply structures at
some distance from the point at which they leave the brain
(e.g., the vagus nerve-cranial nerve X), which is the longest
nerve in the body
Spinal nerves
As the spinal cord passes down the vertebral canal
each segment, corresponding to a vertebra, gives off a pair
of spinal nerves, one to the right side and one to the left.
These nerves are numbered according to the number of the
spinal vertebra in front. 39 Each spinal nerve consists of two
components: A dorsal root carries sensory fibres towards
the spinal cord. Several millimeters from the cord is a small
swelling containing the cell bodies of the sensory neurons,
the dorsal root ganglion. The efferent fibres from the cell
bodies run into the spinal cord and synapse in the grey
matter. A ventral root carries motor fibres away from the
spinal cord. There are no ganglia outside the cord; the
ganglia of the ventral root are in the grey matter of the
cord.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The autonomic nervous system can be divided into two parts: the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The division is based on
the anatomical derivation of the spinal nerves and on their differing effects. Both
types supply most organs and control involves a balance between the two.
The sympathetic division of the ANS prepares the organism to meet a stress by
producing a combination of physiologic changes that increase available fuel molecules,
blood flow to muscle, and cardiac output while simultaneously decreasing digestive
processes. Sympathetic nerve fibers arise from thoracic and lumbar segments of the
spinal cord, thus the sympathetic division is sometimes called the thoracolumbar
division.
The parasympathetic division of the ANS is in many respects the opposite of the
sympathetic division. Parasympathetic activity leads to digestion and storage of fuel
molecules and acts to bring the organism to a state of rest.