Decision-Making in Schools

Decision-Making in Schools:
Advanced Communication Skills for School Managers

Doctor of Education major in Educational Administration
Far Eastern University Graduate School
Manila, Philippines
Presented by
FRANCOIS L. DETERA, MM
Master Teacher I, Sorsogon National High School
SDO Sorsogon City
Decision-Making in Schools: Advanced Communication Skills for School Manager; FEU-Graduate School; July 9, 2021
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We have four categories of daily activities we face:

Things we want to do and have to do
Things we have to do but don’t want to do
Things we want to do but don’t have to do
Things we don’t want to do and don’t have to do
Everyday in life you are faced with making decisions. Think about
a time in your life where you had to make a difficult decision.
WHAT WENT THROUGH YOUR MIND IN MAKING THE

DECISION THAT YOU DID?
Revisiting the Roles of a School Manager
 As per DepEd Order 24, s. 2020

or the National Adoption &
Implementation of PPS for
School Heads
 In the context of the Functions of Management

Planner ; Organizer ; Leader ; Monitor/Evaluator
 In layman’s perspective, the school manager wears

many hats:
LEADER
 Cheerleader
 Initiator
 Motivator
 CORE
Coach
 FUNCTIONS
Counselor
 Friend
 Problem Solver
DECISION-MAKER
Leading vis-à-vis Decision-Making
DECISION-MAKING IS INFLUENCE; A CORE

ACTIVITY IN SCHOOL LEADERSHIP.
“Leadership is influence.” – John C. Maxwell
These are all
Leaders, right?
What Filipinos Look for in a leader vis-à-vis on their
decision-making?
-According to a number of studies conducted by Faculty Members of the
Ateneo Graduate School of Business, CCE
• Person-focused (Makatao), group-centered, knowledgeable

about the job, competent (Elamil, 2011)
• Has integrity, humility, sincerity, maturity, honesty and

dependability (Cortez and Franco, 2014)
What Filipinos Look for in a leader vis-à-vis
on their decision-making?
• Able to exhibit ambidextrous behavior in terms of generating creativity
and enabling organizations to operate efficiently (Rodriguez and
Hechanova, 2014)
• Has strategic and technical competencies, execution competencies,

social competencies, character and resilience (Magsaysay and
Hechanova, 2017)
Presentation Outline
 Decision and Decision-Making Defined
 Fundamental Concepts of DM
 Areas of DM in Schools
 DM Stages and Processes
 DM at Different Levels
 Basic and Contemporary DM Models
 Biases in DM and Predictors of Success in DM
Decision-Making in Schools: Advanced Communication Skills for School Managers; FEU-Graduate School; July 9, 2021
Decision and Decision-Making Defined
• A decision is a choice whereby a person performs a conclusion about a
situation. This represents a course of behavior about what must or what
must not be done. – Peter F. Drucker
• DM is the process of determining and selecting the most effective choice

of action from a range of alternatives, in order to ensure the best
outcome. - Peter F. Drucker
• For Trewatha & Newport: Decision-making involves the selection of a

course of action from among two or more possible alternatives in order to
arrive at a solution for a given problem.
Fundamental Concepts of Decision-Making
The purpose of decision-making is to direct human behavior
and commitment towards a future goal.
Source: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/what-is-decision-making.htm, retrieved on July 8, 2021
DM is data-driven resulting to an informed decision.

“Implementing Data-Informed Decision Making in Schools: Teacher Access,
Supports and Use” by Means, Barbara; Padilla, Christine; DeBarger, Angela; Bakia,
Marianne, US Department of Education Source: http://www.edpubs.org, retrieved on July 9, 2021
Decision-making is dynamic and cyclical.
DM as a managerial function is not absolutely devolved to school managers.
“Decentralized Decision-Making in Schools: The Theory and Evidence on School-

Based Management by Felipe B. Osorio, et.al.”
Source:https
://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eFBxQ6ElJUkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=decision-making+in+school
s&ots=L9oBB4hcew&sig=XLYED_un_YOqHYEr4shVRDtWj9I&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=decision-making%20i
n%20schools&f=false
, retrieved on July 9, 2021
DM is a shared managerial function.

“A Normative Theory of Participative Decision Making in Schools Wayne K. Hoy ,
C. John Tarter, Journal of Educational Administration ISSN: 0957-8234, Article
publication date: 1 MarchSource:https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09578239310038804/full/
1993
html,retrieved on July 8, 2021
DM is contingent (situational) upon organizational culture.
Decision making process can be regarded as check and balance system
that keeps the organization growing both in vertical and linear
directions.
 Decision making process is a consultative affair done by a comity of

professionals to drive better functioning of any organization.
“Improving decision making in schools through teacher participation by
Ndiku J. Mualuko*, Simiyu A. Mukasa and Achoka S. K. Judy, Masinde Muliro
University of Science and Technology, Kenya.”
Source: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/what-is-decision-making.htm, retrieved on July 8, 2021
Stages and Processes of Decision-Making
Implementation
Intelligence Design Choice -Follow-Up
1. Identify the Problem 3. Develop Alternatives 5. Select the Best 6. Implement the Decision
2. Collect Relevant Information 4. Evaluate each Alternative Alternative 7. Follow-up and Evaluate
Intelligence 1. Identify the Problem

2. Collect Relevant Information
 Problem is discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs.

Problem – exists when the actual situation and the desired situation differ
 Identifying the real problem is no easy task.

 What are the surrounding circumstances?
 Is there more than one way to resolve the issues?
3. Develop Alternatives
Design 4. Evaluate each Alternative
Opportunity - represents a situation in which there are possibilities to do
things that lead to results that exceed goals and expectations
Identify the strengths and weakness of each alternative
Select the one that best addresses the salient

discrepancies
For routine decisions alternatives are readily available
through decision rules
Choice 5. Select the Best Alternative
Select the one that best addresses the salient

discrepancies
Implementation- 6. Implement the Decision
Follow-Up 7. Follow-up and Evaluate
Implement the decision and take the steps necessary to

ensure correct timing and execution
Follow-up and evaluate the results
Areas of Decision-Making in Schools
Human Curriculum & Stakeholders Political

Resource Instruction
Fiscal Involvement Intrusion
Enhancement & & Other
Partnership Pressures
On Stakeholder’s Involvement
Situation: A parent is complaining about your teacher having an
affair with her husband, which based on your observation is true. As
school head, what will you do?
Answer: Talk to your teacher and discuss with her the

consequences if the allegations were true.
On Stakeholder’s Involvement
Situation: A parent is complaining about your teacher having an
affair with her husband, which based on your observation is true. As
school head, what will you do?
Answer: Talk to your teacher and discuss with her the

consequences if the allegations were true.
On Curriculum and Instruction
Enhancement
Situation: St. Joseph High School organized a virtual educational
“field trip” to supplement instruction in ODL classes. Majority of the
students joined the virtual undertaking except for three students.
The school gave them offline activities. Is the decision of the school
justified?
Answer: Yes, they should be give analogous activities to

compensate for their inability to join the field trip. (No
punitive measures or activities such as tests related to the
virtual trip.
On Human Resource
Situation: Teacher X refused to accomplish the electronic class record
required by his immediate boss, ASP II for Academics, arguing that he
has academic freedom. Principal Y argued that Teacher X’s
contention is untenable thus issued a memorandum to Teacher X to
comply. Is the decision of Principal Y proper?
Answer: Yes, academic freedom is not a guaranteed right

among basic education teachers. HS teachers are not
allowed the same opportunity to design their own curricula
and assessments that college professors are.
Decision-Making at Different Levels
TOP MANAGEMENT
MIDDLE LEVEL
MANAGEMENT
LOW LEVEL MANAGEMENT
DepEd’s Vision and Mission
Basic Decision-Making Models
 The Rational or Logical Model
 Non-Rational Models
Simon’s Normative Model
Garbage Can Model
Intuitive Decision Model
Pre-disposed Decision Model
 Evidence-Based Model
1. The Rational or Logical DM Model
- proposes that managers use a logical four-step approach to decision-making
Issue on the Rational or Logical Model:
Bounded rationality
represents the notion that decision makers are “bounded” or restricted by a variety of
constraints when making decisions
e.g. 8O – 2O rule; between two evils, choose the lesser evil
2. Nonrational models
-attempt to explain how decisions are actually made
Decision making is uncertain
Decision makers do not possess complete information
Difficult for managers to make optimal decisions
a. Simon’s Normative Model
Satisficing
• choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications, one that is
“good enough”
Most frequent causes of poor decision making

•Poorly defined processes and practices
•Unclear company vision, mission, and goals
•Unwillingness of leaders to take responsibility
•Lack of reliable, timely information
b. Garbage Can Model
• decision making is sloppy and haphazard
• decisions result from complex interaction of four independent
streams of events:
problems
solutions
participants
choices/opportunities
c. Intuitive Decision Making Model
represents judgments, insights, or decisions that “come to mind on their own, without
explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the
validity of these cues.”
• Holistic hunch
• judgment that is based on a subconscious integration of information stored in
memory
• Automated experiences
• choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of
previously learned information related to that situation
c. Intuitive Decision Making Model
-managers do not use objective methods in DM instead use their “gut feeling” and
instincts. This is most suited for managers who have several years of experiences and
knowledge gained from previously encountered scenarios. However, too much
reliance on feelings and instincts often does not lead to be the most ideal decisions
but to imperfect plans and strategies instead. The urgency of situation may also push a
manager to use this model.
d. Pre-disposed DM Model
- the manager, once he/she decides on a solution, will no longer look for other
alternative solutions. The chosen solution is considered the most acceptable
and effective solution and the manager then gathers the needed resources to
implement the decision.
- This is the weakest for the manager, he/she makes a unilateral, snap decision.
There is also a tendency for the manager to collect data and information that
only support his/her decision, ignoring all other contrary data.
3. Evidence-based decision making (EBDM)
• represents a process of conscientiously using the best available data and
evidence when making managerial decisions
Contemporary structured decision-making
models
A. Kepner-Tregoe Matrix Model- this offers a systematic way of

evaluating alternatives by implementing a rational process of
analyzing aspects of a situation or problem. This was developed
by Charles Kepner and Benjamin Tregoe in 196Os.
Steps in Kepner-Tregoe Matrix Model
1.Situation Appraisal- the manager clarifies aspect of the scenario and outlines
possible causes.
2.Problem Analysis- the root cause of the problem is identified and manager
analyzes the effect brought about the problem.
3.Decision Analysis- various solutions and courses of action are identified and
evaluated by conducting risk analysis.
4.Potential Problem Analysis- a possible final decision is determined and carefully
scrutinized. Pros and cons of alternatives are identified and appropriate actions
are taken to minimize the identified risks.
Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision Model
-originally developed by Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton in 1973, and revised in
1998 in collaboration with Arthur Jago. This focuses not on identifying possible
decisions, but on selecting the best leadership style suited for planning and
decision making relevant to various situations
1. Autocratic 1 (A1)- the leader is the sole decision maker. Using all the
information available, the manager makes the decision for the firm.
2. Autocratic 2 (A2)- the manager gathers pertinent information from

members of the group but they do not know the purpose of such
information. There is still no involvement from them. The manager still
decides on behalf of them.
Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision Model
3. Consultative I (C1) – this lets the group members know the problem but the
final decision still rests on the manager.
4. Consultative 2 (C2) – the manager discusses the issue with the group and
gathers suggestions from them. The manager makes the final decision.
5. Group II (G2) – all the group members are responsible for coming up with the
final decision. The manager presents the problem and acts as the facilitator in
the process. The group agrees on the final selection of the best alternative
(decision).
Contemporary structured decision-making
models
C. Observe-Orient-Decide-Act Model- this was brought abought by
the application of military tactics in business situations and other
organizations. This was developed by US Air Force Colonel John Boyd
as decision making model for air combat. For him, DM is essentially a
cycle of actions- observe, orient, decide and act- that an individual
does in quick succession to address a situation.
Four steps in Observe-Orient-Decide-Act Model
1.OBSERVE- gather much information as possible regarding the school environment.
He/she then scans the environment and observes what the external factors are
doing and how clients respond to the product or service the school currently offers.
(SWOT and PESTS Analyses).
2.ORIENT- after scanning, the manager takes a closer look at the information
gathered during the first stage. Societal factors are carefully studied as against the
client’s perceptions of school operations. External factors are likewise analyzed as
determinants of the school’s success.
Four steps in Observe-Orient-Decide-Act Model
3. DECIDE – the manager now decides and chooses the best

possible alternative.
4. ACT – once an alternative is chosen, the manager puts the

chosen plan into action and supervises its implementation.
Decision-Making Biases
Cognitive Biases- this refers to the tendency to

look at situations based on subjective standards
or perspectives. These often lead managers to
make wrong, illogical conclusions regarding
certain situations and people.
1. Escalating Commitment- this happens when a manager despite his/her knowledge of
a project’s failure, continues to acquire more resources to pursue the project instead of
abandoning it. The manager does this due to a feeling of personal responsibility
regarding the project and/or saving his/her ego or reputation.
2. Prior Hypothesis Bias- when a manager holds on to his/her prior belief that a project
will succeed even when evidence to the contrary has been provided. The manager will
strongly pursue the said project while only accepting opinion that agree with his/her
views.
3. Representativeness- it is the tendency to make generalizations based on a
small sample or a single experience.
4. Reasoning by analogy- the tendency to conclude that the results of one

situation can be repeated in a similar situation.
5. Framing Bias- this kind of bias correlates the outcome with how a problem or
decision is framed. Typical for a manager when confronted with problems tend to stick
to their conventional frames or reference and refuse to entertain the notion of
implementing changes in their views regarding the company.
6. Illusion of Control- a type of error which many managers commit when they become
overconfident regarding their ability to solve problems. In a nutshell, too much reliance
on experience and their status in the academe, hence underestimating the problems
they encounter.
7. Availability Error- an error committed when managers immediately used available

resources on a project that is expected to immediately provide success, rather than holding
off and waiting for a later opportunity that will generate event greater success.
Predictors of Success
Growth mindset
Decision makers should

possess Executive Function
Skills
Fixed Mindset vs Growth Mindset
Image: https://metrifit.com/blog/a-growth-mindset-can-help-you-be-the-best/
A growth mindset is the belief that someone’s ability and intelligence can be developed
over time.
Conversely, a fixed mindset is the belief that individuals are born with certain invariant
characteristics, which cannot be altered by experience.
What is your mindset?
Growth mindset
Fixed mindset
My intelligence, ability and
performance can be improved My brains are ‘hard-wired’ and
with effort and the right incapable of dramatic change. I give
strategies, and that my failures up easily, ignore constructive
serve as an opportunity for feedback and I feel threatened by
the success of others.
growth and learning.
Source: OECD 2021 Sky’s the Limit

49
How can I develop/strengthen a
growth mindset?
Try thinking…
Instead of… I can always improve
This is to hard I’ll try a different strategy
I give up I will learn how to do this
I just can’t do this Mistakes help me learn
I’ll never be that smart
Actively seeking out challenges and improving

your executive function skills will help you adopt a
growth mindset that will increase your motivation,
improve your work relationships, and make you
more successful in all aspects of your life.
What are executive functions?
In advancing a decision and implementing it,
executive functions are your ability to:
start tasks
stay focused
keep track of information
plan the necessary steps to reach your goals
manage your emotions to direct your behavior
These skills need conscious and consistent work to be

improved and maintained.
51
If you want to find out what your executive function strengths and challenges are, you may try this questionnaire
@ https://s.surveyanyplace.com/executivefunction
52
BUILD YOUR CORE CAPABILITIES NOW!
“The idea of growth mindset challenges us. It

challenges us to think differently about our intelligence,
talent, and potential. And it challenges educators as school
managers to decide on issues in school, and to think
carefully about how they may create the right
conditions to help students thrive.”
Realizing DepEd’s Vision and Accomplishing

the Department’s Mission.
Poor Decision-Making
will result to Dysfunctional Leadership
• Authoritarianism – regime of a dictator

• Narcissistic – egoistic influence
• Abusive – disruptive
• Unpredictable - uncertain
• Machiavellian – the end justifies the means
Characteristics of Real Leaders
• Competence knowledge, skills, ability to achieve
ability to make moral choices and the courage to

• Character make right decisions even if it means they sacrifice or
give up something
• Purpose doing things for a purpose higher than themselves
• Passion having the motivation to see your purpose through

to completion
PSEUDO LEADERS ONLY USE DECISION-MAKING POWER AND

POSITION OFTEN FOR SELF-CENTERED MOTIVES.
Game changer for 2022
Focus on Essential Learning
The 2022 Competencies
Basic Education Strengthening the

Foundational Skills: Focus on
Curriculum Numeracy, Literacy & Moral
Literacy
Intensifying Values Formation
Rationalization of the
Technical and Vocational
Education
New features for the 2022 Basic Education Curriculum
The need to encourage and

support lifelong learning
GLOBAL FORCES
LOCAL FORCES
climate change
current nature and environmental and
structure of the sustainability issues
labor force global political and citizenry
issues.
This is not a new direction, but the pandemic accentuates its

importance and urgency.
The “why” and “what” of learning

Putting learners at the heart of education
School leadership is a painful journey. Painful
because the path is undefined and uncertain.
There are resistance and betrayal.
School leaders bring their teachers to a place they

don’t necessarily want to go, but should go.
Despite all these, just like heroes, school leaders
think of others more than themselves.
- Divina and Detera, 2021

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Decision-Making in Schools:

Advanced Communication Skills for School Managers

We have four categories of daily activities we face:

WHAT WENT THROUGH YOUR MIND IN MAKING THE

 As per DepEd Order 24, s. 2020

 In the context of the Functions of Management

 In layman’s perspective, the school manager wears

DECISION-MAKING IS INFLUENCE; A CORE

“Leadership is influence.” – John C. Maxwell

• Person-focused (Makatao), group-centered, knowledgeable

• Has integrity, humility, sincerity, maturity, honesty and

• Has strategic and technical competencies, execution competencies,

• DM is the process of determining and selecting the most effective choice

• For Trewatha & Newport: Decision-making involves the selection of a

DM is data-driven resulting to an informed decision.

Decision-making is dynamic and cyclical.

“Decentralized Decision-Making in Schools: The Theory and Evidence on School-

DM is a shared managerial function.

DM is contingent (situational) upon organizational culture.

 Decision making process is a consultative affair done by a comity of

Intelligence 1. Identify the Problem

 Problem is discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs.

 Identifying the real problem is no easy task.

Identify the strengths and weakness of each alternative

Select the one that best addresses the salient

Choice 5. Select the Best Alternative

Select the one that best addresses the salient

Implement the decision and take the steps necessary to

Follow-up and evaluate the results

Human Curriculum & Stakeholders Political

Answer: Talk to your teacher and discuss with her the

Answer: Talk to your teacher and discuss with her the

Answer: Yes, they should be give analogous activities to

Answer: Yes, academic freedom is not a guaranteed right

LOW LEVEL MANAGEMENT

DepEd’s Vision and Mission

Issue on the Rational or Logical Model:

e.g. 8O – 2O rule; between two evils, choose the lesser evil

Most frequent causes of poor decision making

A. Kepner-Tregoe Matrix Model- this offers a systematic way of

2. Autocratic 2 (A2)- the manager gathers pertinent information from

3. DECIDE – the manager now decides and chooses the best

4. ACT – once an alternative is chosen, the manager puts the

Cognitive Biases- this refers to the tendency to

4. Reasoning by analogy- the tendency to conclude that the results of one

7. Availability Error- an error committed when managers immediately used available

Decision makers should

Source: OECD 2021 Sky’s the Limit

Actively seeking out challenges and improving

These skills need conscious and consistent work to be

“The idea of growth mindset challenges us. It

Realizing DepEd’s Vision and Accomplishing

• Authoritarianism – regime of a dictator

ability to make moral choices and the courage to

• Purpose doing things for a purpose higher than themselves

• Passion having the motivation to see your purpose through

PSEUDO LEADERS ONLY USE DECISION-MAKING POWER AND

Basic Education Strengthening the

Intensifying Values Formation

The need to encourage and

This is not a new direction, but the pandemic accentuates its

The “why” and “what” of learning

School leaders bring their teachers to a place they