Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Acroeconomics: Principles of
Acroeconomics: Principles of
Gregory Mankiw
Principles of
Macroeconomics
Savings/Investments
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In this chapter,
look for the answers to these questions:
• What are the main types of financial institutions
in the U.S. economy, and what is their function?
• What are the three kinds of saving?
• What’s the difference between saving and
investment?
• How does the financial system coordinate saving
and investment?
• How do govt policies affect saving, investment,
and the interest rate?
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Financial Institutions
The financial system: the group of institutions
that helps match the saving of one person with the
investment of another.
Financial markets: institutions through which
savers can directly provide funds to borrowers.
Examples:
The Bond Market.
A bond is a certificate of indebtedness.
The Stock Market.
A stock is a claim to partial ownership in a firm.
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Financial Institutions
Financial intermediaries: institutions through
which savers can indirectly provide funds to
borrowers. Examples:
Banks
Mutual funds – institutions that sell shares to
the public and use the proceeds to buy
portfolios of stocks and bonds
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The Financial Crisis of 2008–2009
A financial crisis led to a deep recession in the U.S.
and around the world. A few unemployment rates:
11
10
9
% of labor force
7
USA
6 France
5 U.K.
Canada
4
Sweden
3
1/1/2007
4/1/2007
7/1/2007
1/1/2008
4/1/2008
7/1/2008
1/1/2009
4/1/2009
7/1/2009
1/1/2010
4/1/2010
7/1/2010
1/1/2011
4/1/2011
7/1/2011
1/1/2012
10/1/...
10/1/...
10/1/...
10/1/...
10/1/...
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FYI: Elements of Financial Crises
Large decline in some asset prices
2008–2009: Housing prices fell 30%.
Insolvencies at financial institutions
2008–2009:
Banks and other institutions failed when many
homeowners stopped paying their mortgages.
Decline in confidence in financial institutions
2008–2009:
Customers with uninsured deposits began
pulling their funds out of financial institutions.
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FYI: Elements of Financial Crises
Credit crunch
2008–2009: Borrowers unable to get loans
because troubled lenders not confident in
borrowers’ credit-worthiness.
Economic downturn
2008–2009: Failing financial institutions and a
fall in investment caused GDP to fall and
unemployment to rise.
Vicious circle
2008–2009: The downturn reduced profits and
asset values, which worsened the crisis.
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Different Kinds of Saving
Private saving
= The portion of households’ income that is not
used for consumption or paying taxes
=Y–T–C
Public saving
= Tax revenue less government spending
=T–G
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National Saving
National saving
= private saving + public saving
= (Y – T – C) + (T – G)
= Y – C – G
= the portion of national income that is not used
for consumption or government purchases
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Saving and Investment
Recall the national income accounting identity:
Y = C + I + G + NX
For the rest of this chapter, focus on the closed
economy case:
Y=C+I+G
national saving
Solve for I:
I = Y – C – G = (Y – T – C) + (T – G)
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Budget Deficits and Surpluses
Budget surplus
= an excess of tax revenue over govt spending
= T–G
= public saving
Budget deficit
= a shortfall of tax revenue from govt spending
= G–T
= – (public saving)
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ACTIVE LEARNING 1
A. Calculations
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ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers, part A
Given:
Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3
Public saving = T – G = – 0.3
Taxes: T = G – 0.3 = 1.7
Private saving = Y – T – C = 10 – 1.7 – 6.5 = 1.8
National saving = Y – C – G = 10 – 6.5 = 2 = 1.5
Investment = national saving = 1.5
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ACTIVE LEARNING 1
B. How a tax cut affects saving
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ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers, part B
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ACTIVE LEARNING 1
C. Discussion questions
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The Meaning of Saving and Investment
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The Meaning of Saving and Investment
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The Market for Loanable Funds
Assume: only one financial market
All savers deposit their saving in this market.
All borrowers take out loans from this market.
There is one interest rate, which is both the
return to saving and the cost of borrowing.
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The Market for Loanable Funds
The supply of loanable funds comes from saving:
Households with extra income can loan it out
and earn interest.
Public saving, if positive, adds to national
saving and the supply of loanable funds.
If negative, it reduces national saving and the
supply of loanable funds.
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The Slope of the Supply Curve
An increase in
Interest
Rate Supply the interest rate
makes saving
more attractive,
6%
which increases
the quantity of
loanable funds
3% supplied.
60 80 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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The Market for Loanable Funds
The demand for loanable funds comes from
investment:
Firms borrow the funds they need to pay for
new equipment, factories, etc.
Households borrow the funds they need to
purchase new houses.
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The Slope of the Demand Curve
A fall in the interest
Interest
rate reduces the cost
Rate
of borrowing, which
7% increases the quantity
of loanable funds
demanded.
4%
Demand
50 80 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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Equilibrium
The interest rate
Interest adjusts to equate
Rate Supply supply and demand.
60 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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Policy 1: Saving Incentives
Tax incentives for
Interest saving increase
Rate S1 S2 the supply of L.F.
60 70 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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Policy 2: Investment Incentives
An investment tax
Interest credit increases the
Rate S1 demand for L.F.
6%
…which raises the
5% eq’m interest rate
and increases the
D2 eq’m quantity of L.F.
D1
60 70 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Budget deficits
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ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers
A budget deficit reduces
national saving and the
Interest S2 supply of L.F.
Rate S1
50 60 Loanable Funds
($billions)
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Budget Deficits, Crowding Out,
and Long-Run Growth
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The U.S. Government Debt
The government finances deficits by borrowing
(selling government bonds).
Persistent deficits lead to a rising govt debt.
The ratio of govt debt to GDP is a useful
measure of the government’s indebtedness
relative to its ability to raise tax revenue.
Historically, the debt-GDP ratio usually rises
during wartime and falls during peacetime—until
the early 1980s.
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U.S. Government Debt
as a Percentage of GDP, 1790–2012
120%
WW2
100%
Financial
80% Crisis
Revolutionary
60% War
Civil
War WW1
40%
20%
0%
1790
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CONCLUSION
Like many other markets, financial markets are
governed by the forces of supply and demand.
One of the Ten Principles from Chapter 1:
Markets are usually a good way
to organize economic activity.
Financial markets help allocate the economy’s
scarce resources to their most efficient uses.
Financial markets also link the present to the future:
They enable savers to convert current income into
future purchasing power, and borrowers to acquire
capital to produce goods and services in the future.
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S U M MA RY
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S U M MA RY