MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscles

• Muscles are the largest soft tissues of the musculoskeletal system. Muscle is derived from the
Latin word “musculus” meaning “little mouse”. The muscle cell, muscle fibre, contains protein
filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing contractions that move body
parts, including internal organs.

• Associated connective tissue binds muscle fibres into fascicles or bundles, and these associated
connective tissues also convey nerve fibres and blood vessels (capillaries) to the muscle cells.
• Muscle tissue has four main properties:
• Excitability - ability to respond to stimuli;
• Contractibility - ability to contract;
• Extensibility - ability of a muscle to be stretched without tearing; 
• Elasticity - ability to return to its normal shape
Through contraction, the muscular system performs the following important
functions: production of force and movement, supporting of the body, changing of
body posture, stability of joints, production of body heat (to maintain normal body
temperature), as well as, provision of form to the body.
• Although muscles produce heat energy, they also require energy to perform their
functions. Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and
carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used. These chemical
reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used up by
myosin filaments during muscle contractions.
Types Of Muscles
• There are three types of muscles. They are the:
• Skeletal muscles, which move bones and other structures (e.g. the eyes)
• Cardiac muscles, which form most of the walls of the heart and adjacent great
vessels, such as the aorta
• Smooth or Visceral muscles, which form part of the walls of most vessels and hollow
organs, move substances through viscera such as the intestine, and control
movement through blood vessels
• Muscles are classified histologically into striated muscles and non-striated muscles
based on the structural characteristic called “striations” which is due to the
arrangement of the muscle fibre’s actin and myosin filaments. Based on this
microscopic classification, skeletal and cardiac muscles are grouped as striated
muscles, while the visceral muscle is non-striated.
Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart. Highly coordinated contractions of cardiac
muscle pump blood into the vessels of the circulatory system. Similar to skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle is striated and organized into sarcomeres( functional unit of striated muscle) possessing the
same banding organization as skeletal muscle . However, cardiac muscle fibers are shorter than
skeletal muscle fibers and usually contain only one nucleus, which is located in the central region
of the cell. Cardiac muscle fibers also possess many mitochondria and myoglobin( iron- and oxygen-
binding protein) as ATP is produced primarily through aerobic metabolismbody( creates energy
through the combustion of carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats in the presence of oxygen)
Cardiac muscle fibers cells also are extensively branched and are connected to one another at
their ends by intercalated discs. An intercalated disc allows the cardiac muscle cells to contract in
a wave-like pattern so that the heart can work as a pump.
Intercalated discs
Intercalated discs are part of the sarcolemma and contain two
structures important in cardiac muscle contraction:
gap junctions and desmosomes. A gap junction forms channels
between adjacent cardiac muscle fibers that allow the depolarizing
current produced by cations to flow from one cardiac muscle cell to the
next. This joining is called electric coupling, and in cardiac muscle it
allows the quick transmission of action potentials and the coordinated
contraction of the entire heart. The remainder of the intercalated disc
is composed of desmosomes.
A desmosome is a cell structure that anchors the ends of cardiac
muscle fibers together so the cells do not pull apart during the stress of
individual fibers contracting
• Contractions of the heart (heartbeats) are controlled by specialized
cardiac muscle cells called pacemaker cells that directly control heart
rate. Although cardiac muscle cannot be consciously controlled, the
pacemaker cells respond to signals from the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) to speed up or slow down the heart rate. The
pacemaker cells can also respond to various hormones that modulate
heart rate to control blood pressure.
The Heart Wall
 Perimysium
• Perimysium is a sheath of connective tissue that groups muscle fibers into bundles (anywhere between
10 and 100 or more) or fascicles.
• muscle fascicle is a bundle of skeletal muscle fibers surrounded by perimysium, a type of
connective tissue. (There is also a nerve fascicle of axons.)
Epimysium
• The epimysium is the fibrous tissue envelope that surrounds skeletal muscle. It is
a layer of dense irregular connective tissue which ensheaths the entire muscle
and protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers that are not arranged in parallel
bundles as in dense regular connective tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue consists of mostly collagen fibers. It has less
ground substance than loose connective tissue.
 Tendon
A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable
of withstanding tension.
• Tendons are similar to ligaments; both are made of collagen. Ligaments join one bone to bone, while tendons
connect muscle to bone for a proper functioning of the body.
• Histologically, tendons consist of dense regular connective tissue fascicles encased in
dense irregular connective tissue sheaths.
 Endomysium
• The endomysium, meaning within the muscle, is a wispy layer of areolar connective tissue that
ensheaths each individual myocyte (muscle fiber, or muscle cell). It also contains capillaries and
nerves. It overlies the muscle fiber's cell membrane: the sarcolemma. Endomysium is the
deepest and smallest component of muscle connective tissue. This thin layer helps provide an
appropriate chemical environment for the exchange of calcium, sodium, and potassium, which
is essential for the excitation and subsequent contraction of a muscle fiber.
• Endomysium combines with perimysium and epimysium to create the collagen fibers of
tendons, providing the tissue connection between muscles and bones by indirect attachment
• Epimysium
The epimysium is the fibrous tissue envelope that surrounds skeletal muscle. It is a layer of
dense irregular connective tissue which ensheaths the entire muscle and protects muscles from
friction against other muscles and bones
• Muscle fibres. are the individual contractile units within muscle.
Smooth muscle
• Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two
subgroups; the single-unit (unitary) and multiunit smooth muscle. Within
single-unit cells, the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium. (is a
multinucleated cell that can result from multiple cell fusions of uninuclear cells )
• Smooth muscle cells are found in the walls of hollow organs, including the
stomach, intestines, urinary bladder and uterus, and in the walls of
passageways, such as the arteries and veins of the circulatory system, and
the tracts of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems. These cells
are also present in the eyes and are able to change the size of the iris and
alter the shape of the lens. In the skin, smooth muscle cells cause hair to
stand erect in response to cold temperature or fear
 Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue is one of four major classes of tissues. It is specialized tissue found in the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It consists of neurons and supporting cells
called neuroglia.
• The nervous system is responsible for the control of the body and the communication among
its parts. Nervous tissue contains two categories of cells—neurons and neuroglia.
• Neurons
• Neurons are highly specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses. A typical
neuron consists of dendrites, the cell body, and an axon.
• Dendrites
• Dendrites are responsible for responding to stimuli; they receive incoming signals towards the
cell body. The axons are responsible for transmitting impulses over long distances from cell
body. The cell body is like a factory for the neuron. It produces all the proteins and contains
specialized organelles such as nucleus, granules and Nissl bodies(is a large granular body found in
neurons. These granules are of rough endoplasmic reticulum)
 Cell membrane

• The Plasma Membrane (formerly known as the cell membrane) forms the border of a neuron and acts to control
the movement of substances into and out of the cell. This membrane is composed of two layers of lipid or fat
molecules (phospholipids, in particular),. Protein molecules are embedded within this bi-lipid membrane. Channel
proteins serve as channels for controlling the rate of transport of specific molecules across the plasma membrane.
Signal proteins respond to the binding of specific substances (often hormones) by sending messages into the cell
to activate particular cellular mechanisms
• The Cell Body
• The cell body, also called the soma, is the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus. The cell body
connects to the dendrites, which bring information to the neuron, and the axon, which sends information to
other neurons. When information is received from another neuron, the dendrites pass the signal to the cell body.
The cell body then may send the information to the axon, depending on the strength of the signal.
Neuron Types

Types of Cell Bodies

Bipolar neurons have the cell body
located in the middle with one axon and
one dendrite coming from each end.
Unipolar neurons have a projection
connecting it to both the axon and the
dendrite instead of both attaching directly
to the cell body
Multipolar neurons have the cell body
attached to a long axon and many dendrites
Nervous tissue
 Types of Nervous Tissue
• The nervous system consists of nervous tissue, which is composed of two principal types of cells called neuron and neuroglia
• Nervous tissue, one of the four main tissue types, is composed of neurons and Neuroglia
• There are six types of neuroglia—four in the central nervous system and two in the PNS. These glial cells are involved in many
• specialized functions apart from support of the neurons. Neuroglia in the CNS include astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal
cells and
• oligodendrocytes. In the PNS, satellite cells and Schwann cells are the two kinds of neuroglia
• cells called neuroglia. Neuroglia are also called “glial cells.”
• Astrocytes
• Astrocytes are shaped like a star and are the most abundant glial cell in the CNS. They have many radiating processes which
help in clinging to the neurons and capillaries. They support and brace the neurons and anchor them to the nutrient supply
lines. They also help in the guiding the migration of young neurons. Astrocytes control the chemical environment around the
neurons.
• Microglial Cells
• Microglial cells are small and ovoid un shape with thorny processes. They are found in the CNS. When invading microorganism
or dead neurons are present, the microglial cells can transform into a phagocytic macrophage and help in cleaning the
neuronal debris.
• Ependymal Cells
• Ependymal cells are ciliated and line the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord where they form a fairly permeable
barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid that fills these cavities and the tissue cells of the CNS.
 Types of Nervous Tissue
• Oligodendrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes line up along the nerves and produce an insulating cover called
myelin sheath. They are found in the CNS.
• Satellite Cells
• Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
They are analogous to the astrocytes in the CNS.
• Schwann Cells
• in the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells are neuroglia cells that support
neuronal function by increasing the speed of  impulse propagation. The Schwann
cells are underlain by the medullary sheath. The medullary sheath is interrupted
at intervals by the nodes of Ranvier.