EARTH

AND
SPACE
EARTH SCIENCE includes:
GEOLOGY – study of the Earth
OCEANOGRAPHY – study of the ocean
METEOROLOGY – study of the atmosphere
and the processes that produce weather
ASTROLOGY – study of the universe
FORMATION OF THE EARTH:
- Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets at
essentially the same time.
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
- The solar system evolved from an enormous rotating
cloud called the solar nebula.
- the nebula was composed mostly of HYDROGEN &
HELIUM
- About 5 billion (4.6 billion) years ago, the nebula began to contract.
- It assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the
center.
- Inner planets begin to form from metallic and rocky clumps.
- Larger outer planets began forming fragments with a high
percentage of ice.
LAYERS FORM ON EARTH
- As earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat
from high – velocity impacts caused the temperature to
increase.
- Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the
surface.
- Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the
primitive atmosphere
EARTH’S MAJOR SPHERE
1.HYDROSPHERE
- Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere.
- It is 71 % of the Earth’s surface
- Holds about 97 % of the Earth’s water
- Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes, and
glaciers, as well as that found underground
2. ATMOSPHERE
- thin tenuous blanket of air
- one half lies below 5.6 km (3.5 miles)
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. Troposphere
- Earth’s troposphere extends from Earth’s surface to, on
average, about 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) in height, with its
height lower at Earth’s poles and higher at the equator.
 - the densest atmospheric layer, compressed by the
weight of the rest of the atmosphere above it.
- Most of Earth’s weather happens here
- almost all clouds that are generated by weather are
found here, with the exception of cumulonimbus
thunder cloud
2. Stratosphere
- Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers (7.5 and
31 miles) above Earth’s surface
- It is where ozone layer located which protects us from the
Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
- The stratosphere is nearly cloud- and weather-free, but polar
stratospheric clouds are sometimes present in its lowest,
coldest altitudes.
- It’s also the highest part of the atmosphere that jet planes can
reach.
3. Mesosphere
- Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers (31 and 50 miles) above
Earth’s surface
- the mesosphere gets progressively colder with altitude.
- Its top layer is the coldest place found within the Earth system, with an
average temperature of about minus 85 degrees Celsius (minus 120
degrees Fahrenheit).
- The very scarce water vapor present at the top of the mesosphere forms
noctilucent clouds (night shining clouds), the highest clouds in Earth’s
atmosphere, which can be seen by the naked eye under certain conditions
and at certain times of day.
- Most meteors burn up in this atmospheric layer.
- Sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft can reach the mesosphere.
4. Thermosphere
- Located between about 80 and 700 kilometers (50 and 440
miles) above Earth’s surface is the thermosphere
- the lowest part contains the ionosphere.
- In this layer, temperatures increase with altitude due to the
very low density of molecules found here.
- It is both cloud- and water vapor-free.
- The aurora borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen
here.
- The International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere.
5. Exosphere
- Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers (440 and
6,200 miles) above Earth’s surface
- the exosphere is the highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere
and, at its top, merges with the solar wind.
- Molecules found here are of extremely low density, so this
layer doesn’t behave like a gas, and particles here escape
into space.
- there’s no weather at all in the exosphere
- the aurora borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen
in its lowest part.
- Most Earth satellites orbit in the exosphere.
3. BIOSPHERE
- Includes all life
- Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from
the ocean floor upward for several km into the
atmosphere
- a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota)
and the abiotic (nonliving) factors from which they
derive energy and nutrients.
- Earth's environmental spheres.
- Earth's environment includes the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere.
THEORIES ABOUT THE PRIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
1.BIG BANG THEORY
- the universe was once concentrated in an extremely hot and
dense fireball called the YLEM. This YLEM exploded billion of
years ago. After the explosion, it expanded and cooled, causing
the subatomic particles. These subatomic particles combined
together to form the element HYDROGEN. Helium was also
formed as a result of fusion. As the YLEM expanded, it also
continued to cool, forming a galaxies due to the condensation of
gases. As the gases condensed continuously, stars, planets and
satellites were formed.
2. Steady-state theory
- a theory proposed in 20th-century cosmology to explain
evidence that the universe was expanding but still retain
the core idea that the universe always looks the same, and
is therefore unchanging in practice and has no beginning
and no end. 
3. Pulsating Theory
- The universe came from a continuously expanding ball.
Time will come that the ball will contract, and will become
small and then expand again.
- the process will go on repeating over and over again
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
1. CRUST
- The crust is the layer that you live on. It is the outermost
layer and is composed of two basic rock types granite and
basalt.
- There are two kinds of crust: continental crust,
and ocean crust. Continental crust is thicker, and
predominantly felsic in composition, meaning that it
contains minerals that are richer in silica. It is composed
mostly of granite. Ocean crust on the other hand is
thinner, and predominantly mafic in composition or it is
mostly consists of basalt.
2. MANTLE
- The mantle is the layer located directly under the sima. It is the
largest layer of the earth,1800 miles thick. It is composed of very
hot, dense rock. This layer of rocks even flows like asphalt under
a heavy weight. This flow is due to great temperature differences
from bottom to the top of the mantle. The movement of the mantle
is the reason that plates of the earth move. The temperature of the
mantle varies 1600 degrees Fahrenheit at the top to about 4000
degrees Fahrenheit near the bottom. It is concluded by now that
the composition of the mantle is 46% silicon oxide, 38%
magnesium oxide, 8% iron oxide and other compounds like
“garnet”
3. OUTER CORE
-The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals, (4000 degrees F.
to 9000 degrees F.). It is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid
state. The outer core is located about 1800 miles beneath the crust and
is about 14000 miles thick. It is composed of the melted metals nickel
and iron. It is mostly composed of liquid iron and nickel as well as
small amounts of substances. The outer core is responsible for the
Earth’s magnetic field. As Earth spins on its axis, the iron inside the
liquid outer core moves around causing a powerful electric current.
The magnetic field protects the Earth from harmful particles that come
from the sun.

 
4. INNER CORE
- Inner core has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals
are squeezed together and are not able to move about like a liquid
but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid. It begins about 4000
miles beneath the crust and is about 800 miles thick. The
temperature may reach 9000 degrees F. and the pressures are
45,000,000 pounds per square inch. This 3,000,000times the air
pressure on you at sea level. It is a solid spheroid, composed
mostly of solid iron and some nickel. it generates its
own magnetic field, and has a radius of 1220 km.
WEATHERIN
G
& EROSION
WEATHERING
- the process of breaking down rocks into sediments. Chemical and
mechanical weathering are both natural processes that will break down
rocks.
TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. Chemical weathering demands chemical reactions with minerals inside
the rock and causes changes in rock composition. Sometimes this process
will produce a different kind of product due to the reaction.

2. Mechanical weathering also known as Physical Weathering

-involves the physical breakage of rocks to smaller pieces of fragments,
without changing the physical composition of the rocks
- mechanical weathering disintegrates rocks with nature’s own physical
pressures.
EROSION
- The movement of rock fragments and soil
from one place to another
- Materials that are transported due to erosion
called sediments.
- Soil erosion is the process of washing away
or transported weathered rocks.
TYPES OF EROSION
1. Water erosion
Raindrops hit bare soil with enough force to break the soil aggregates. These fragments
wash into soil pores and prevent water from infiltrating the soil. Water then
accumulates on the surface and increases runoff which takes soil with it.
2. Sheet and rill erosion
Sheet erosion occurs when a thin layer of topsoil is removed over
a whole hillside paddock—and may not be readily noticed.
Rill erosion occurs when runoff water forms small channels as it
concentrates down a slope. These rills can be up to 0.3m deep. If
they become any deeper than 0.3m they are referred to as 
gully erosion.
SHEET AND RILL EROSION
3. Scalding
Scalding can occur when
wind and water erosion
removes the top soil and
exposes saline or sodic soils.
4. Gully erosion
- happens when runoff
concentrates and flows
strongly enough to
detach and move soil
particles.
5. Tunnel erosion
- Tunnel erosion is the
removal of subsoil.
When water penetrates
through a soil crack or a
hole where a root has
decayed, the soil disperses
and is carried away with the
flow to leave a small
tunnel.
6. Stream bank erosion
The major cause of stream
bank erosion is the destruction
of vegetation on river banks
(generally by clearing,
overgrazing, cultivation,
vehicle traffic up and down
banks or fire) and the removal
of sand and gravel from the
stream bed.
Wind erosion
It is most likely to occur when
strong winds blow over light-
textured soils that have been
heavily grazed during drought
periods.
Mass movement
Mass movement
Mass movement occurs on
cleared slopes in coastal areas.
Agents of soil erosion Causes of soil erosion
• Gardening
1. Wind • Quarrying
2. Water • Rainfall and Flooding
• farming practices( major
3. Animals cause of soil erosion)
4. Humans •Grazing. ...
•Logging and Mining. ...
5. Gravity •Construction. ...
6. Ice •Rivers and Streams. ...
•Heavy Winds. .
Effects of Soil Erosion
Loss of Arable Land
Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is
rich in the essential nutrients required by the plants and the soil.
The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads to
low crop productivity.
Clogging of Waterways
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers,
and several other chemicals. This pollutes the water bodies where
the soil flows.
The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels
resulting in flooding
Air Pollution
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic
substances such as pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when
inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid and semi-arid regions cause widespread
pollution when the winds move.
Desertification
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable
regions into deserts. Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the
situation. This also leads to loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and
alteration in the ecosystem.
Destruction of Infrastructure
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce
their efficiency. Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such as dams,
embankments, and drainage.
Soil Erosion Prevention
1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.
2. Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath
to prevent soil erosion.
3. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on the slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from
washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from
eroding.
6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that
water flows down into proper water collecting systems.