Introduction to Heat in Machining

1. Heat has critical influences on machining. To some

extent, it can increase tool wear and then reduce tool
life, get rise to thermal deformation and cause to
environmental problems, etc. But due to the
complexity of machining mechanics, it's hard to predict
the intensity and distribution of the heat sources in an
individual machining operation. Especially, because
the properties of materials used in machining vary with
temperature, the mechanical process and the thermal
dynamic process are tightly coupled together.

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 Theory

• Almost all (90%-100%) of the mechanical energy consumed

in a machining operation finally convert into the thermal
energy.
• There are three major sources of thermal in orthogonal cutting
with a sharp tool: plastic deformation in the so-called
primary zone and secondary zone, and the frictional
dissipation energy generated at the interface between tool
and chip. But if the tool is with a round tip, part of heat may
be generated at the interface between tool and workpiece
due to friction. In pure theoretical analysis, more assumptions
are needed: usually, the plane heat sources at the shear plane
and the tool-chip interface are assumed as being uniformly
distributed.

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 Theory
The following is a typical heat source model in orthogonal

cutting:  
Heat can also be generated near/at the workpiece/toop interface, which
isn't shown here.
           

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 Experimental methods

• Tool-Chip Thermocouple Technique

• Embedded Thermocouple Technique
• Infrared Radiation Technique
• Metal Microstructure and Microhardness Variation
Measurement
• Thermosensitive Painting Technique
• Temper Color Technique

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 Tool-Chip Thermocouple Technique

1. Here is the schematic of tool-chip thermocouple set-up:

Generally, only the average temperature at the tool/chip

interface can be obtained. Sometimes, a tool-work
thermocouple was also used.

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 Tool-Chip Thermocouple Technique

Generally, only the average temperature at the tool/chip interface can be

obtained. Sometimes, a tool-work thermocouple was also used.  The
calibration of the tool-chip thermocouple is shown as:

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 Tool-Chip Thermocouple Technique

• Some limitations of this methods are

mainly:
 
1.The elimination of parasitic e.m.f.'s which
could affect the thermocouple output.
• The calibration of the thermocouple output

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 Embedded Thermocouple Technique

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 Infrared Radiation Technique

 Limitation of the above

measurements is that there is
considerable interference of the
contact zone which must influence the
heat flow and the resulting
temperature of either the chip or tool
surface

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 Infrared Radiation Technique

Infrared Photography
technique proposed by
Boothroyd can obtain a
full temperature field in
the chip and workpiece.
A calibration strip,
which was electrocally
heated from one end,was
simply used to calculate
the real temperature. The
following setup was used
at that time:

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 Metal Microstructure and Microhardness
Variation Measurement
• Under suitable cutting
conditions, the metallographic
method can be used to
determining the temperature
gradients in high speed steel
cutting tools. The following
picture is the etched rake face
of tool used to cut nickel in
normal dry atmosphere at 46
m/min, 0.25 mm/rev feed for
30 seconds(After E. F. Smart
and E. M. Trent):

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 Thermosensitive Painting Technique

• Using the thermosensitive paints for estimating

cutting temperature is because that these paints
change colors at different temperature.
•  Limitations are that there is a relatively long time
lag for the colors to change and that small changes
in temperature are not easy to be detected.

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 Temper Color Technique

• This technique is based on the fact that the temper

colors of some metals are different at different
temperatures. And it wasn't widely used.

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 Numerical Simulation

The numerical methods were successfully applied in

calculating the temperature distribution and thermal
deformation in tool, chip and workpiece. Especially,the
finite element and boundary element methods can deal
with very complicated geometry in machining, they have
great potential to slove the problems in practice. These
methods are listed in the following: 
 
• Finite Difference Methed
• Finite Element Method
• Boundary Element Method
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 Finite Difference Method

1. Generally, the pure theoretical methods only gave us

very approximate results, such as average temperature
and temperature distribution along the shear plane and
the tool/chip interface.  Finite difference method can be
used to calculate the temperature distributions in the
chip, tool and workpiece. And better results can be
expected because the geometry and boundary conditions
of chip, tool and workpiece, as well as the shape of
distributed heat sources can be descripted well.

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 Finite Element Method

1. Finite element method(FEM) has great potential to calculate the

temperature distributions in the chip, tool and workpiece if the
geometry, boundary conditions and the shape of distributed heat
sources become very complicate.
2. In addition, FEM can be used to calculate the temerature
distribution in either toolholder or machined parts and then to obtain
the thermal deformation.
3.  Finally, because an accurate distributed heat source model is
needed in order to obtain a better result in the temperature
distribution. FEM can be naturally coupled with some mechanics
model, therefore, predicts the intensity and distribution of the heat
sources.

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 Boundary Element Method

1. Boundary Element Method(BEM) was used in

calculating the temperature distribution in the tool
by O. A. Tay. BEM has great potential in reducing
solid modeling to surface modeling. A wide
application in this field is undoubtable.

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 Heat Generated in Primary Zone

• Heat generated in this zone is mainly due to plastic deformation

and viscous dissipation. But in classical machining theory, the
rate of heat generated is the product of the shear plane
component, Fs, of the resultant force and the shear velocity, Vs,
i.e., the shear energy is completedly converted into heat.  If heat
source is uniformly distributed along the shear plane, the intesity
of shear plane heat source, Ip, satisfies the following relation:
• Fs Vs
Ip = ---------------
b t1
• where b is the cutting width and t1 the uncut depth.

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 Heat Generated in Secondary Zone
• In this region, because of the complexity of plastic deformation, this
part of heat was ignored in many prevoius theoretical research.
Boothroyd has shown that the secondary plastic zone is roughly
triangular in shape and that strain rate, E., in this region varies linearly
from an approximatedly constant value along the tool/chip interface
given by

Vc •
E. = --------------
dt
• Where Vc is the chip velocity, dt the maximum thickness of the zone.
•  Hence the maximum intensity of heat source in this zone is
proportional to the strain rate

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Heat Generated at Interface between Tool & Chip

• Heat is generated at the tool/chip interface by friction. The

intensity,Ic, of the frictional heat source is approximatedly by

• F Vx
Ic = ------------
hb
• where F is the friction force, Vx the sliding velocity of the
chip along the interface, and h is the plastic contact length.

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 Heat Transfer

Conduction, Convection & Radiation in Ordinary

Cutting Operations

• The three types of heat transfer, conduction, convection and

radiation, all exist in the machining operations.  Heat transfer inside
the chip and workpiece, the tool and toolholder is by conduction.
•  Heat transfer between coolant/air and the chip/tool/workpiece is by
convection.
•  Radiation is rarely investigated in traditonal machining operations.
But radiation techniques are widely applied in measuring the
temperature distribution in various machining operations .

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 Cutting Fluids' Effects on Heat Transfer

• Cutting fluids' effects on heat transfer are, in

gerneral, classified as:
 
 
• Cutting fluids may reduce the cutting force, such as friction,
therefore, heat generation is reduced to some extent.
• Using cutting fluids, heat generated in machining can be
rapidly removed away by convection.
• Generally, using cutting fluid cannot reduce the maximum
temperature at the tool/chip interface, but increase the
temperature gradient in both the chip and the tool because
cutting fluid is not easy to access the cutting edge.

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 Heat Effects

• Heat Influences on Cutting Forces

• Heat influence on the cutting forces is mainly
because that:
 
 
• The friction coeffient is tightly dependent upon
temperature.
• The properties of cut material also depend on
temperature

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 Heat Effects

• Heat Effects on Tool Life

• Heat has great influence on tool life. The
following diagram verify this point:
 Variations of tool life with workpiece bulk
temperature when milling Cr-Ni-Mo steel at
speeds of (1) 150 fpm and (2) 200 fpm.
(After krabacher and Merchant 1951)

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 Heat Effects

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 Heat Effects

• Heat gives rise to thermal deformatiom in the workpiece, which

finally takes on the form of surface toughness.
 
Thermal deformation in the lathe is the so-called thermal error in
precision machining.
 
  Heat Effects on Mass Transfer in Coolant Circulation System
•  
When heat generated in machining finally flow into the coolant
circulation system, it may degrade the used coolant and cause
vaporization and atomiziton of coolant. This is also the Health
Issue in Enviromentally Conscious Machining.
 

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