Research Methodology

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Steps in Research Process: Recap
 Formulating the Research Problem
 Developing the Objectives
 Extensive Literature Review
 Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design (Methodology)
 Collecting the Data
 Analysis of Data
 Generalization and Interpretation
 Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results ie Formal write-ups of conclusions reached.
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Research Design
 Def’n:- conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

 Researcher will be required to prepare a research design,
 i.e. state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.
 Preparation of such design facilitates research to be efficient
 Thus, function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

.
 Type of research problem determine the research design and
not vice-versa.
 The design phase of a study determines which tools to use

and how they are used.

Essential elements of a research design:
 Accurate purpose statement
 Techniques to be implemented for collecting data
 Method applied for analyzing collected data
 Type of research methodology
 Probable objections for research
 Settings for the research study
 Timeline
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories:
(i)Exploration
(ii)Description
(iii)Diagnosis
(iv)Experimentation
 A Research Design could therefore be explorative, descriptive,

diagnostic or experimental.
1. Exploratory research
 It is a lot like exploration or detective work fueled by

curiosity.
 Researchers use their instincts to find clues and venture into

new territories in search of information.
 Results in new ideas, revelations and insights.

Objectives that warrant the need for exploratory research:
 To define an ambiguous problem more precisely
eg. Why sales of a specific product are declining.
 To gain a better understanding of an issue.
 To generate new ideas
eg. what one can do to improve customer relationships.
 Develop hypotheses that can explain the occurrence of specific
phenomena.
 For providing insights
eg. How political changes are going to affect our business.
Tools used to conduct exploratory research:
1. Secondary information
2. Personal interviews
3. Focus groups
4. Case analysis

2. Descriptive research
 Used for description or to describe phenomenon or idea.
 A researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case

under their research study.
 A theory-based design method which is created by gathering,

analyzing, and presenting collected data.
 Compared to exploratory research, descriptive research follows a very

rigid approach
Where do we use Descriptive design?
1. To describe the traits of specific groups

eg. Largest customers who account for more than 60 percent
of our sales
2. Covariance of two variables
eg. Does consumption of our services vary by income range?
3. To estimate the size of consumer groups in a population that
act in a specific manner.
eg. How often do newly married like to shop from our brand?
4. For specific predictions.
3. Experimental research design
 Establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation.
 A causal design where one observes the impact caused by the

independent variable on the dependent variable.
 eg. one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price

on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.
 It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving

a problem at hand.

4. Diagnostic research design
 Researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a

specific topic or phenomenon.
 Method helps one learn more about the factors that create
troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:
i. Inception of the issue
ii. Diagnosis of the issue
iii. Solution for the issue

5. Correlational research design
 A non-experimental research design technique that

helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables

Characteristics of research design
 Neutrality: - Results projected in the research design should

be free from bias and neutral.
 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the

researcher involved expects similar results every time.

 Validity: The only correct measuring tools are those which help a
researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research.
 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a

population and not just a restricted sample.
 Survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar

accuracy.
Writing Research Proposal
Introduction
A document proposing a research project
 Generally in sciences or academia
 At times constitutes a request for sponsorship in carrying

out that research.
Written before research is conducted in order to gain

approval or funding for the research.
Proposals are evaluated on:
The cost and potential impact of the proposed research

 Soundness of the proposed plan for carrying it out.
The main purpose of a research proposal in academia

is to give a basic idea to your supervisor about your
research paper.

Key points addressed by Research proposals :
a) What and how research question(s) will be addressed

b) Time and expense required for the research
c) Prior research done on the topic
d) Method of evaluation
e) Benefit of the research to the sponsoring organization
and other parties

Types of Research Proposals
Approval proposal. This type of proposal is written
before undertaking a final project, dissertation or thesis,
and is submitted to your supervisor for approval.
Funding proposal:- Proposal is submitted to an external
organization in order to seek funding for your research.

Approval proposals
 Your supervisor needs to see that your research is worthwhile

and carefully planned before you begin.
Means presenting information such as:-
a)Purpose of the research
b)Significance of the research
c)Previous research in the same area
d)How your research will be conducted
e)Timeframe
f)Resources required/research budget
Funded Proposals
 The funding organization needs to see that your
research represents a worthwhile investment of
available funds
 More of persuasive writing, not a just mere

presentation of information

Funded Proposals must demonstrate the following:
Validity of your research design

Significance of the research
Relevance to the organization
Competence of the researcher
Fitness of the research facilities
Appropriateness of your research budget

Note:
 Research proposals may be solicited:- submitted in

response to a request with specified requirements, such
as a request for proposal
 or unsolicited:- submitted without prior request.

Note:
 Academic research proposals are generally written as part of the initial

requirements of writing a thesis, research paper, or dissertation (thus in
present tense).
 They generally follow the same format as a research paper, with an

introduction, a literature review, a discussion of research methodology and
goals, and a conclusion.
 Basic structure may vary between projects, fields or institutions, each of

which may have its own requirements(format, style, structure).

Research Proposal Structure
o Title
o Abstract
o Introduction/Background
o Problem Statement
o Purpose/Aims/Rationale/Objectives/Research Questions
o Significance of the study/ Justification
o Review of Literature
o Methodology
o Work Plan/Schedule
o Proposed Budget
o Bibliography/References
SAMPLING
Definition of a Sample
Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by

taking a sample.
A Sample: - a segment of the population selected to
represent the population as a whole.
Ideally, a sample should be a representative that allows the
researcher to make accurate estimates of the larger population.

Sample Design
Designing the sample calls for 3 decisions:
i) Who will be surveyed? (The Sample/Target Population):- what

type of information is needed and who is most likely to have it.
ii)How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size):- Large
samples give more reliable results than small samples.
o NOT necessary to sample the entire target population.
iii) How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling):- Sample

members may be chosen at random from the entire population
Categories of Samples
a) Probability samples
b)Non-probability samples

Probability samples
 Simple random sample: Every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected.
 Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually
exclusive groups(Strata) such as age groups
 random samples are drawn from each group.
 Cluster (area) sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive

groups such as blocks
 researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.

Non-probability samples
Convenience sample: Researcher selects the easiest population
members from which to obtain information.
Judgment sample: Researcher uses his/her judgment to select
population members who are good prospects for accurate information.
Quota sample: Researcher finds and interviews a prescribed
number of people in each of several categories.

Sample Design
 A definite plan determined for obtaining a sample from

a given population….ie the way of selecting a sample.
 The plan to select 12 out of a town’s 200 drugstores

constitutes a sample design.

Sampling Techniques
 Deliberate Sampling  Quota Sampling
 Simple Random  Cluster/Area Sampling

Sampling  Multi-stage Sampling
 Systematic Sampling  Sequential Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
(i) Deliberate sampling:
 Involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the

population for constituting a sample which represents the others.
 Also known as convenience sampling
 Example: -If a researcher wishes to secure data from gasoline buyers,

he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct
interviews at these stations.
 Could give very biased results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous
(ii) Simple random sampling
 Each and every item in the population has an equal

chance of inclusion in the sample
 Each one has the same probability of being selected.
 Eg. Like conducting a lottery

(iii) Systematic sampling:
Selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then
every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
Procedure useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list
eg. The 15th name on a list; every 10th house on one side of a street.
use random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.

(iv) Stratified Sampling:
 Used when the population from which a sample is to

be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group
eg. Strata of Students, Non-teaching staff, Teaching Staff.
 Population is stratified into a number of strata and

sample items are selected from each stratum.
 Stratified Random Sampling-when items are first

stratified and then simple random sampling is used.
(v) Quota sampling:
 Interviewers are given quota to be filled from different strata
 Actual selection of items for sample is left to the interviewer’s judgment.
 The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population.
 Important form of non-probability sampling.
 Judgment samples rather than random samples.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling:
 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and

then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling:
 Meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably

large geographical area like an entire country.
Counties/
Districts Towns Families
States
 If random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling

procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling:
 A complex sample design where the ultimate size of

the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined
according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses.
 Usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the

context of statistical quality control.
Data Collection
 Having formulated the research problem, developed a study

design, constructed a research instrument and selected a
sample,
 Now need to collect the data from which you will draw inferences
and conclusions for your study.
 Methods of Data Collection include: interviews, mail out a
questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.

Outline
 Definitions
 Sources of Data
 Types of data
 Determining data to be collected
 Research instruments

Ethical issues concerning research participants during data collection
i) Collecting information:- request may put pressure or create anxiety on a respondent.

ii) Seeking consent:- unethical to collect information without the knowledge of the
participant.
■ Informed consent implies that participants are made adequately aware of the type
of information you want from them, why the information is being sought, what
purpose it will be put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how
it will directly or indirectly affect them.
iii) Providing incentives:- Giving a present/incentive before data collection is
unethical.
Ethical issues cont.,
iv) Seeking sensitive/confidential information: regarded as an invasion to their

privacy, may upset or embarrass a respondent.
 eg, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are intrusive.
v) The possibility of causing harm to participant:- need to examine carefully
whether involvement of participants is likely to harm them in any way.
vi) Maintaining confidentiality:- Sharing information about a respondent with
others for purposes other than research is unethical.
vii) Incorrect reporting:- To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them
to serve your own or someone else’s interest, is unethical.

Types of Data
■ Primary Data— collected for the first time
(through experiment or survey)
■ Secondary Data —data which have already been

collected and analyzed by someone else.

Methods of Data Collection
(i)By observation: collection of information by way of investigators’ own

observation, without interviewing the respondents.
Advantage
 Does not require interviewing the respondents
Drawbacks
 Expensive method
 Information provided very limited.
 Not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview:
Investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews.
Usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
Advantages:
Can be used to collect many different kinds of information
Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method.
Limitations:
Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about things they consider private.
Busy people may not want to take the time
May try to help by giving pleasant answers
Unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought to what they do and why
May answer in order to look smart or well informed.

(iii) Through telephone interviews:
 Involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself.

 Not a very widely used method
Advantages:
 Quick method
 More flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
 Depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
 Allows greater sample control
 Response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks:
 Cost per respondent higher
 Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
 Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
 Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
 Under time pressure ,data may be entered without actually interviewing

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires:
■ Researcher and the respondents come in contact with each other
■ Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return

after completing the same.
■ Most extensively used method in surveys.
■ Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is first conducted to reveal the
weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
■ Questionnaire to be used must be prepared carefully so that it may prove

to be effective in collecting the relevant information
Advantages:
Limitations:
 Can be used to collect large amounts of
 Not flexible
information at a low cost per respondent.
 Take longer to complete than
 Respondents may give more honest answers to
telephone or personal interview
personal questions on a mail questionnaire
 Response rate is often very low
 No interviewer is involved to bias the
 Researcher has no control over who
respondent’s answers.
answers.
 Convenient for respondent’s who can answer
when they have time
 Good way to reach people who often travel

(v) Through schedules:
 Enumerators are appointed and given training.

 Provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
 Enumerators then go to respondents to collect data.
 Enumerators fill up the schedules on the basis of replies given by
respondents.
 Enumerators are key on effectiveness of the method

Advantages: Limitations:
 Very flexible and can be used to collect large  Cost: may cost more than
amounts of information. telephone survey
 Enumerators can guide interviews, explore issues,  Interviewer bias.
and probe as the situation requires.
 Personal interview can be used in any type of
questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.

(vi) Experimental Method
■ Also called Empirical Research,

■ A data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or
experiment.
■ Appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
e.g.-Tenderizers (independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat (dependent variable)

■ Characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects.

■ Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis, then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove the hypothesis.

■ Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most powerful
support possible for a given hypothesis.

Tool for Data Collection (Research Instruments)
The construction of a research instrument or tool for data
collection is the most important aspect of a research project

Anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon
the type of information you collect,

 The data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that
you ask from your respondents.

The famous saying about computers- “garbage in garbage
out”- is also applicable for data collection.

The research tool provides the input into a study and
therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings),
are solely dependent on it.

Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:
■This is to ensure the validity of the data collection instrument by making sure
that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
questions for your study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions
that you want to answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information
required to answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information
The Questionnaire
Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent
for answers.
The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then
write down the answers themselves.

Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being
used on a large scale.


(vi) Experimental Method
Types of questionnaire
There are three basic types of questionnaire:

• Closed –ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both

Closed –ended Questionnaire:
Include prewritten response categories, and respondents are

asked to choose among them.
e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions
Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative
research.
Most of the responses can be entered easily into a computer for
ease of analysis, thus greater numbers can be distributed.
Open-ended Questionnaire:
Allow respondents to answer in their own words.
Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for the
respondent to write in an answer.
Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use a
service, open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a
service.
As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.
As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be
distributed.
Combination of both:
This way it is possible to find out how many people use a

service and what they think of the service in the same form.
Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to

tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-
ended questions or more detailed response.
Preferred by many researchers

How to construct questionnaires:
 Decide which questionnaire to use- - closed or open ended,
 Questions should be kept short and simple.
 Keep the questionnaire as short as possible and ask easy questions
which respondents will enjoy answering
 Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions
respondents can relate their answer to other people.

 Avoiding Leading Question: Don’t lead the respondent to answer in a
certain way.
e.g. “How often do you wash your car?” assumes that respondent has a
car and he washes his car.
Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and then, ‘If you wash
your car, how many times a year?’
 If combined questionnaire, keep open-ended questions to the end.

Piloting the Questionnaire
 Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it.
 This means that you must test it out to see if it is obtaining the
result you require.
 This is done by running a few of them

Generalizations and Interpretation
Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher can now test the hypotheses,
if any.
ie . Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?

The hypotheses may be tested through the use of such tests as Chi square test,
T-test, F-test depending upon the nature and objective of research inquiry.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis
of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested in subsequent researches in times to come.

Hypothesis Testing
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
Real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis, he/she will explain his findings on the basis of some theory, ie interpretation.

Report Writing
The report informs the world:
what you have done

what you have discovered

conclusions you have drawn from your findings.

Report should be written in an academic style.
Language should be formal and not journalistic.

Report Writing
The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) Preliminary pages;
(ii) The main text, and
(iii) The end matter.

Preliminary pages
The report should carry:

 Title and date followed by acknowledgements and
dedication.
 Table of contents followed by a list of tables and list
of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
 Before the introduction comes the abstract.

The Main Text
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction:- It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the

research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the
research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be
stated in this part.
(b) Main report:-The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(c) Conclusion:- Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put
down the results
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of his research clearly and precisely.
Dr. Wahome Rureri 74
End Matter
 At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in

respect of all technical data.
 Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., should

also be given in the end.
 Index should also be given specially in a published research

report.

Research Project Report Format
Different institutions/organizations provide their

different ways of report format, however most reports
will have the following format:

Title Page
Title of the Research Project,

Name of the researcher,
Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project submitted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Kenya National
Examination Council for the attainment of a Diploma in Analytical
Chemistry”
Date of Publication

Table of Contents
In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings
e.g
■Table of contents…………………………………………………………,………iii
■Abstract…………………………………………………………………………...ix
■Chapter I Introduction, Statement of the problem, Objectives …………………..1
■Chapter II Literature Review and Theoretical Framework…………. …………....34
■Chapter III Research Methodology………………………………………………..53
■Chapter IV Research Findings, Data Analysis and Interpretation ……………......98
■Chapter V Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations………………………..130
■Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………156
■References/ Bibliography………………………………………………………….158
■Appendices………………………………………………………………………..164
■Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees………………………………………...168
■Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers…………………………………………170

List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g. Table
No. Title Page No.
■Income levels of Respondents ……………125
■Age distribution of Respondents …………135
■

List of Figures
This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie
charts etc. e.g.
Figure No. Title Page No
■Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents……..120
■Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items…………. 134

Acknowledgements
■Here the researcher may acknowledge his/her
supervisor, research assistant, research participants,
friends etc.

Abstract
■This is a summary of the research study.
■After reading this, any interested party should be able
to replicate the research study.

Introduction
■This section introduces the research, giving background
of the study, sets out aims and objectives.
■ It includes the research problem, justification for the

study, scope of the study and limitations of the study.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Mentions earlier related research done.

Obtained by reviewing literature.
You must indicate from where all the information has come, so remember to keep
a complete record of everything you read.
If you do not do this, you could be accused of plagiarism which is a form of
intellectual theft.
When you are referring to a particular book or journal article, use the APA style.

Methodology
This section includes all practical details followed ie Research
Design..
Methods used for data collection,
Target population
Sampling and Sampling methods (how many people took part, how
they were chosen)
What tool was used for data collection,
How the data was analysed etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation:
If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this

section may contain tables, graphs, pie charts and
associated statistics.
If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research,
this section may be descriptive prose.

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
■In this section you sum up your findings and draw

conclusions from them, in relation to the objectives.
■A list of clear recommendations which have been
developed from the research is included.
■Recommendation section could be the most important part
of the report.
Suggestion for Further Research
It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to
include a section which shows how the research can be continued.
Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the research has
thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed.
 It is useful to include this section because it shows that you are aware
of the wider picture and that you are not trying to cover up something
which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

References /Bibliography
List of references containing details of those works cited in the text.
 Bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are
relevant to the subject
Bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources
that were used while preparing the report.
It is an alphabetical list as per the author’s surname. APA style
mostly recommended.
For a Book
Surname of author(Alphabetically),followed by two initials, Year of
publication, Title of book in italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if
more than one, place of publication, publishers.
■e.g. Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology- Methods and
Techniques. New Delhi:: New Age international (P) Ltd,.
■Mark, S., Philip, L., & Adrian, T. (2009). Research Methods for
Business Students. Financial Times Prentice Hall.

For Journal Article
The title of the article appears in inverted commas and name of the journal
comes in italics, followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g.
Agus, A.N. (2004). “Total Quality Management Focus for Improving Overall
Service Performance and Customer satisfaction: an empirical study on a
public service Sector in Malaysia”; Total Quality Management and Business
Excellence,, No. 5.
Philip, T.E. (2002); “Influence of British Raj on Indian Cuisine”; Journal of
Hospitality Education; 5:5-11

Appendices:
If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview schedule for
your research, it may be useful to include them in your report as an
appendix.
Appendices do not count towards your total number of
pages/words.
It is a useful way of including relevant material so that the
examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by reading it.

Note:
■Strictly adhere to instructions given for Typing

Font/Font Size, Spacing, Margins, Binding, etc.

Criteria of Good Research
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
1. Good research is systematic:
Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a

specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules.
However this does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly
does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.

2. Good research is logical:
Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise.
In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical:
It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that
provides a basis for external validity to research results.

Emerging Trends and Problems/Challenges
Encountered by Researchers
Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
Insufficient interaction between the institution research departments on one side

and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on
the other side.
Lack of confidence by business units that information given to researchers will

not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in giving the needed
information to researchers.

Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for
want of adequate information.
Lack of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial

assistance.
Library management and functioning not satisfactory at many places and

much of the time and energy of researchers is spent in tracing out the books,
journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

Most libraries not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports
and other government publications in time.
Lack of timely availability of published data from various government and
other agencies.
Problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of

data collection and related things.

4. Good research is replicable:
This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.

Research Methodology

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Research Methodology

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RESEARCH

 Developing the Objectives

 Extensive Literature Review

 Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design (Methodology)

 Collecting the Data

 Generalization and Interpretation

 Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results ie Formal write-ups of conclusions reached.

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 Def’n:- conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

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 The design phase of a study determines which tools to use

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 Accurate purpose statement

 Techniques to be implemented for collecting data

 Method applied for analyzing collected data

 Type of research methodology

 Probable objections for research

 Settings for the research study

 A Research Design could therefore be explorative, descriptive,

 It is a lot like exploration or detective work fueled by

 Researchers use their instincts to find clues and venture into

 Results in new ideas, revelations and insights.

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 Used for description or to describe phenomenon or idea.

 A researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case

 A theory-based design method which is created by gathering,

 Compared to exploratory research, descriptive research follows a very

1. To describe the traits of specific groups

 Establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation.

 A causal design where one observes the impact caused by the

 eg. one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price

 It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving

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 Researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a

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i. Inception of the issue

ii. Diagnosis of the issue

iii. Solution for the issue

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 A non-experimental research design technique that

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 Neutrality: - Results projected in the research design should

 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the

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 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a

 Survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar

 At times constitutes a request for sponsorship in carrying

Written before research is conducted in order to gain

The cost and potential impact of the proposed research

The main purpose of a research proposal in academia

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a) What and how research question(s) will be addressed

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Approval proposal. This type of proposal is written

before undertaking a final project, dissertation or thesis,

and is submitted to your supervisor for approval.

Funding proposal:- Proposal is submitted to an external

organization in order to seek funding for your research.

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 Your supervisor needs to see that your research is worthwhile

 More of persuasive writing, not a just mere