CHAPTER 05 Structure of Atoms

CHAPTER 5
 The Structure of Atoms
1
Chapter Outline
Subatomic Particles
1. Fundamental Particles
2. The Discovery of Electrons
3. Canal Rays and Protons
4. Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
5. Atomic Number
6. Neutrons
7. Mass Number and Isotopes
8. Mass spectrometry and Isotopic Abundance
2
Chapter Goals
9. The Atomic Weight Scale and Atomic Weights

The Electronic Structures of Atoms
10. Electromagnetic radiation
11. The Photoelectric Effect
12. Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom
13. The Wave Nature of the Electron
14. The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Atom
3
Chapter Goals
15. Quantum Numbers

16. Atomic Orbitals
17. Electron Configurations
18. Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism
19. The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
4
Fundamental Particles
 Three fundamental particles make up atoms. The following
table lists these particles together with their masses and
their charges.
Particle Mass (amu) Charge
-
Electron (e ) 0.00054858 -1
Proton (p,p+) 1.0073 +1

0
Neutron(n,n ) 1.0087 0
5
The Discovery of Electrons
 Humphrey Davy in the early 1800’s passed
electricity through compounds and noted:
– that the compounds decomposed into elements.
– Concluded that compounds are held together by
electrical forces.
 Michael Faraday in 1832-1833 realized that the
amount of reaction that occurs during
electrolysis is proportional to the electrical
current passed through the compounds.
6
 Cathode Ray Tubes experiments performed in the late
1800’s & early 1900’s.
– Consist of two electrodes sealed in a glass tube containing a
gas at very low pressure.
– When a voltage is applied to the cathodes a glow discharge is
emitted.
7
 These “rays” are emitted from cathode (- end)

and travel to anode (+ end).
– Cathode Rays must be negatively charged!
 J.J. Thomson modified the cathode ray tube
experiments in 1897 by adding two adjustable
voltage electrodes.
– Studied the amount that the cathode ray beam was
deflected by additional electric field.
8
 Modifications to the basic cathode ray tube

experiment.
9
 Thomson used his modification to measure the

charge to mass ratio of electrons.
Charge to mass ratio
e/m = -1.75881 x 108 coulomb/g of e-
 Thomson named the cathode rays electrons.
 Thomson is considered to be the “discoverer of
electrons”.
 TV sets and computer screens are cathode ray
tubes.
10
 Robert A. Millikan won the 1st American Nobel

Prize in 1923 for his famous oil-drop experiment.
 In 1909 Millikan determined the charge and
mass of the electron.
11
 Millikan determined that the charge on a single

electron = -1.60218 x 10-19 coulomb.
 Using Thomson’s charge to mass ratio we get
that the mass of one electron is 9.11 x 10-28 g.
– e/m = -1.75881 x 108 coulomb
– e = -1.60218 x 10-19 coulomb
– Thus m = 9.10940 x 10-28 g
12
Canal Rays and Protons
 Eugene Goldstein noted streams of positively charged particles in
cathode rays in 1886.
– Particles move in opposite direction of cathode rays.
– Called “Canal Rays” because they passed through holes (channels or
canals) drilled through the negative electrode.
 Canal rays must be positive.
– Goldstein postulated the existence of a positive fundamental particle
called the “proton”.
13
Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom
 Ernest Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and

Ernst Marsden’s experiment in 1910.
 - particle scattering from thin Au foils
– Gave us the basic picture of the atom’s structure.
14
 In 1912 Rutherford decoded the -particle
scattering information.
– Explanation involved a nuclear atom with electrons
surrounding the nucleus .
15
 Rutherford’s major conclusions from the -particle
scattering experiment
1. The atom is mostly empty space.
2. It contains a very small, dense center called the nucleus.
3. Nearly all of the atom’s mass is in the nucleus.
4. The nuclear diameter is 1/10,000 to 1/100,000 times less
than atom’s radius.
16
 Because the atom’s mass is contained in such

a small volume:
– The nuclear density is 1015g/mL.
– This is equivalent to 3.72 x 109 tons/in3.
– Density inside the nucleus is almost the same as a
neutron star’s density.
17
Atomic Number
 The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
in the nucleus.
– Sometimes given the symbol Z.
– On the periodic chart Z is the uppermost number in each
element’s box.
 In 1913 H.G.J. Moseley realized that the atomic
number determines the element .
– The elements differ from each other by the number of protons
in the nucleus.
– The number of electrons in a neutral atom is also equal to the
atomic number.
18
Neutrons
 James Chadwick in 1932 analyzed the results

of -particle scattering on thin Be films.
 Chadwick recognized existence of massive
neutral particles which he called neutrons.
– Chadwick discovered the neutron.
19
Mass Number and Isotopes
 Mass number is given the symbol A.
 A is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
– Z = proton number N = neutron number
– A=Z+N
 A common symbolism used to show mass and proton
numbers is
A 12 48 197
Z E for example C, Ca,6 20 79 Au
 Can be shortened to this symbolism.
14 63 107
N, Cu, Ag, etc.
20
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different
neutron numbers.
– Isotopes have different masses and A values but are the same
element.
 One example of an isotopic series is the hydrogen isotopes.
1
H or protium is the most common hydrogen isotope.
 one proton and no neutrons
2
H or deuterium is the second most abundant hydrogen isotope.
 one proton and one neutron
3
H or tritium is a radioactive hydrogen isotope.
 one proton and two neutrons
21
 The stable oxygen isotopes provide another example.
 16
O is the most abundant stable O isotope.
• How many protons and neutrons are in 16O?
8 protons and 8 neutrons
 17O is the least abundant stable O isotope.
 How many protons and neutrons are in 17O?
 18O is the second most abundant stable O isotope.
How many protons and neutrons in 18O?
22
Mass Spectrometry and
Isotopic Abundances
 Francis Aston devised the first mass spectrometer.
– Device generates ions that pass down an evacuated path inside
a magnet.
– Ions are separated based on their mass.
23
Isotopic Abundances
 There are four factors which determine a

particle’s path in the mass spectrometer.
1 accelerating voltage
2 magnetic field strength
3 masses of particles
4 charge on particles
24
Isotopic Abundances
 Mass spectrum of Ne+ ions shown below.

– How scientists determine the masses and
abundances of the isotopes of an element.
25
The Atomic Weight Scale and
Atomic Weights
 If we define the mass of 12C as exactly 12 atomic mass
units (amu), then it is possible to establish a relative
weight scale for atoms.
– 1 amu = (1/12) mass of 12C by definition
– What is the mass of an amu in grams?
 Example 5-1: Calculate the number of atomic mass
units in one gram.
– The mass of one 31P atom has been experimentally
determined to be 30.99376 amu.
– 1 mol of 31P atoms has a mass of 30.99376 g.
26
Atomic Weights
 6.022  10 P atoms 
23 31
(1.000 g) 31

 30.99376 g P 
27
Atomic Weights
 6.022  10 23 31P atoms 

(1.000 g) 31

 30.99376 g P 
 30.99376 amu  23 31
 31   6.022  10 amu P
 P atom 
– Thus 1.00 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu.

– This is always true and provides the conversion factor between grams and amu.
28
Atomic Weights
 The atomic weight of an element is the

weighted average of the masses of its stable
isotopes
 Example 5-2: Naturally occurring Cu consists
of 2 isotopes. It is 69.1% 63Cu with a mass of
62.9 amu, and 30.9% 65Cu, which has a mass
of 64.9 amu. Calculate the atomic weight of
Cu to one decimal place.
29
Atomic Weights
atomic weight  (0.691)(62.9 amu)

      
63
Cu isotope
30
Atomic Weights
atomic weight  (0.691)(62.9 amu)  (0.309)(64.9 amu)
             
63 65
Cu isotope Cu isotope
31
Atomic Weights
atomic weight  (0.691)(62.9 amu)  (0.309)(64.9 amu)
             
63 65
Cu isotope Cu isotope
atomic weight  63.5 amu for copper
32
Atomic Weights
 Example 5-3: Naturally occurring chromium

consists of four isotopes. It is 4.31% 2450Cr,
mass = 49.946 amu, 83.76% 2452Cr, mass =
51.941 amu, 9.55% 2453Cr, mass = 52.941 amu,
and 2.38% 2454Cr, mass = 53.939 amu.
Calculate the atomic weight of chromium.
You do it!
33
Atomic Weights
atomic weight  (0.0431 49.946 amu)  (0.8376  51.941 amu)
 (0.0955  52.941 amu)  (0.0238  53.939 amu)
 2.153  43.506  5.056  1.284 amu
 51.998 amu
34
Atomic Weights
 Example 5-4: The atomic weight of boron is

10.811 amu. The masses of the two naturally
occurring isotopes 510B and 511B, are 10.013 and
11.009 amu, respectively. Calculate the
fraction and percentage of each isotope.
You do it!
 This problem requires a little algebra.
– A hint for this problem is x + (1-x) = 1
35
Atomic Weights
10.811 amu  x(10.013 amu)  1  x (11.009 amu)

             
10 11
B isotope B isotope
 10.013 x  11.009 - 11.009 x  amu

10.811 - 11.009 amu  10.013 x - 11.009 x  amu
- 0.198  -0.996 x
0.199  x
36
Atomic Weights
 Note that because x is the multiplier for the 10B

isotope, our solution gives us the fraction of
natural B that is 10B.
 Fraction of 10B = 0.199 and % abundance of 10B
= 19.9%.
 The multiplier for 11B is (1-x) thus the fraction of
11
B is 1-0.199 = 0.811 and the % abundance of
11
B is 81.1%.
37
The Electronic Structures of Atoms
Electromagnetic Radiation
 The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation has the
symbol 
 Wavelength is the distance from the top (crest) of one
wave to the top of the next wave.
– Measured in units of distance such as m,cm, Å.
– 1 Å = 1 x 10-10 m = 1 x 10-8 cm
 The frequency of electromagnetic radiation has the
symbol 
 Frequency is the number of crests or troughs that pass a
given point per second.
– Measured in units of 1/time - s-1
38
 The relationship between wavelength and frequency for
any wave is velocity = 
 For electromagnetic radiation the velocity is 3.00 x 108
m/s and has the symbol c.
 Thus c =  forelectromagnetic radiation
39
 Molecules interact with electromagnetic
radiation.
– Molecules can absorb and emit light.
 Once a molecule has absorbed light (energy),
the molecule can:
1. Rotate
2. Translate
3. Vibrate
4. Electronic transition
40
 For water:
– Rotations occur in the microwave portion of spectrum.
– Vibrations occur in the infrared portion of spectrum.
– Translation occurs across the spectrum.
– Electronic transitions occur in the ultraviolet portion of spectrum.
41
 Example 5-5: What is the frequency of green

light of wavelength 5200 Å?
c
c     

 1 x 10-10 m 
(5200 Å)    5.200  10-7 m
 1Å 
3.00  108 m/s

5.200  10-7 m
42   5.77  1014 s -1
 In 1900 Max Planck studied black body
radiation and realized that to explain the
energy spectrum he had to assume that:
1. energy is quantized
2. light has particle character
 Planck’s equation is
hc
E  h  or E 

-34
h  Planck’s constant  6.626 x 10 J  s
43
 Example 5-6: What is the energy of a photon of

green light with wavelength 5200 Å?What is
the energy of 1.00 mol of these photons?
From Example 5 - 5, we know that   5.77 x 1014 s -1
E  h
E  (6.626  10-34 J  s)(5.77  1014 s -1 )
E  3.83  10-19 J per photon
For 1.00 mol of photons :
(6.022  1023 photons)(3.83  10-19 J per photon)  231 kJ/mol
44
The Photoelectric Effect
 Light can strike the surface of some metals

causing an electron to be ejected.
45
The Photoelectric Effect
 What are some practical uses of the photoelectric
effect?
You do it!
 Electronic door openers
 Light switches for street lights
 Exposure meters for cameras
 Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect
– Explanation involved light having particle-like behavior.
– Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
46
Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom
 An emission spectrum is formed by an electric
current passing through a gas in a vacuum tube (at
very low pressure) which causes the gas to emit
light.
– Sometimes called a bright line spectrum.
47
 An absorption spectrum is formed by shining

a beam of white light through a sample of gas.
– Absorption spectra indicate the wavelengths of light that
have been absorbed.
48
 Every element has a unique spectrum.

 Thus we can use spectra to identify elements.
– This can be done in the lab, stars, fireworks, etc.
49
 Atomic and molecular spectra are important

indicators of the underlying structure of the
species.
 In the early 20th century several eminent
scientists began to understand this underlying
structure.
– Included in this list are:
– Niels Bohr
– Erwin Schrodinger
– Werner Heisenberg
50
 Example 5-7: 1An 10orange

-10
m  line of wavelength
  5890 Å    5.890 10 7 m
5890 Å is -10 observed Å in1the emission spectrum of
 1 10 m   710 m 
-10
7
sodium.
  5890 Å    5890
What is5.the
890 
Å energy
10
hc m

of one
  5photon
.890  10of m
Å light? Å

this orange  E  h  

hc You do it! hc
E  h  E  h 
 

6.626 1034 J  s 3.00
7
 6 .
62610 8
m/s
 10 34
J  s 3 .00  10 8

m/s
5.890 10 m 5.890 10 7 m
 3.375  10 19 J
51
 The Rydberg 1  1 1 
equation is an  R  2  2 
  n1 n 2 
empirical equation
that relates the R is the Rydberg constant
wavelengths of the R  1.097  107 m -1
lines in the
n1  n 2
hydrogen spectrum.
n’ s refer to the numbers
of the energy levels in the
52 emission spectrum of hydrogen
 Examplen n5-8.
2  4
4 and
and
What n
isnnthe
1 
22
2 4 and n1 of2light
wavelength
2 1
emitted when the hydrogen atom’s energy
11
changes from

 1
1 1 1
1 
  1 1 
  Rn= 4 to n =2?
R  2 
R  
2   2 2 
  nn1 nn 2   n1 n 2 
2 2
 1 2 
1 1 7 -1  1 71  -1  1 1 
 1.097  10 m 1.097
 2 10
 2m  2  2 
  2 4  2 4 
1 7 -1  1 1
 1.097  10 m   
53   4 16 
1 that the wavelength

Notice calculated from
 1.097
the Rydberg
77

--11
 10 mmatches
equation 0.250 
thewavelength
0.0625
 green colored line in the H spectrum.
of the
1
 1.097  10 m 0.1875
77 --11

1 66 --11
 2.057  10 m

-7
54   4.862 10 m
 In 1913 Neils Bohr incorporated Planck’s

quantum theory into the hydrogen spectrum
explanation.
 Here are the postulates of Bohr’s theory.
1. Atom has a number of definite and discrete
energy levels (orbits) in which an electron
may exist without emitting or absorbing
electromagnetic radiation.
As the orbital radius increases so does the energy
55 1<2<3<4<5......
2. An electron may move from one discrete

energy level (orbit) to another, but, in so doing,
monochromatic radiation is emitted or
absorbed in accordance with the following
equation.
hc
E 2 - E1  E  h 

E 2  E1
Energy is absorbed when electrons jump to higher
orbits.
n = 2 to n = 4 for example
56 Energy is emitted when electrons fall to lower orbits.
3. An electron moves in a circular orbit about the

nucleus and it motion is governed by the
ordinary laws of mechanics and electrostatics,
with the restriction that the angular momentum
of the electron is quantized (can only have
certain discrete values).
angular momentum = mvr = nh/2
h = Planck’s constant n = 1,2,3,4,...(energy levels)
v = velocity of electron m = mass of electron
r = radius of orbit
57
 Light of a characteristic wavelength (and

frequency) is emitted when electrons move from
higher E (orbit, n = 4) to lower E (orbit, n = 1).
– This is the origin of emission spectra.
 Light of a characteristic wavelength (and
frequency) is absorbed when electron jumps from
lower E (orbit, n = 2) to higher E (orbit, n= 4)
– This is the origin of absorption spectra.
58
 Bohr’s theory correctly explains the H
emission spectrum.
 The theory fails for all other elements
because it is not an adequate theory.
59
The Wave Nature of the Electron
 In 1925 Louis de Broglie published his Ph.D.
dissertation. h
–  element of his dissertation is that electrons
A crucial
mv properties.
have wave-like
– The electron wavelengths are described by the de
h  Broglie
Planck’ s constant
relationship.
m  mass of particle
v  velocity of particle
60
 De Broglie’s assertion was verified by

Davisson & Germer within two years.
 Consequently, we now know that electrons (in
fact - all particles) have both a particle and a
wave like character.
– This wave-particle duality is a fundamental property
of submicroscopic particles.
61
 Example 5-9. Determine the wavelength, in m, of an electron,
with mass 9.11 x 10-31 kg,hhaving a velocity of 5.65 x 107 m/s.
–

Remember Planck’s constant is 6.626 x 10-34 Js which is also equal to
mv
6.626 x 10-34 kg m2/s2.
34 2 2
6.626  10 kg m  s

 -31 7
9.11  10 kg 5.65 10 m/s  
  1.29 10 11 m
62
 Example 5-10. Determine the wavelength, in m, of a 0.22
caliber bullet, with mass 3.89 x 10-3 kg, having a velocity of
395 m/s, ~ 1300 ft/s.
You do it!
h
  so small compared to the
• Why is the bullet’s wavelength
electron’s wavelength? mv
34 2 2
6.626 10 kg m  s

 
.89 10 kg 395 m/s 
33.89 -3
34
63   4.3110 m
The Quantum Mechanical
Picture of the Atom
 Werner Heisenberg in 1927 developed the

concept of the Uncertainty Principle.
 It is impossible to determine simultaneously both
the position and momentum of an electron (or
any other small particle).
– Detecting an electron requires the use of
electromagnetic radiation which displaces the electron!
 Electron microscopes use this phenomenon
64
Picture of the Atom
 Consequently, we must must speak of the

electrons’ position about the atom in terms of
probability functions.
 These probability functions are represented as
orbitals in quantum mechanics.
65
Picture of the Atom
Basic Postulates of Quantum Theory

1. Atoms and molecules can exist only in certain
energy states. In each energy state, the atom
or molecule has a definite energy. When an
atom or molecule changes its energy state, it
must emit or absorb just enough energy to
bring it to the new energy state (the quantum
condition).
66
Picture of the Atom
2. Atoms or molecules emit or absorb radiation

(light) as they change their energies. The
frequency of the light emitted or absorbed is
related to the energy change by a simple
equation.
hc
E  h 

67
Picture of the Atom
3. The allowed energy states of atoms and

molecules can be described by sets of
numbers called quantum numbers.
 Quantum numbers are the solutions of the
Schrodinger, Heisenberg & Dirac equations.
 Four quantum numbers are necessary to
describe energy
..
states of electrons in atoms.
Schr o dinger equation
b2   2  2  2 
 2  2  2  2   V  E
68 8 m   x  y  z 
Quantum Numbers
 The principal quantum number has the symbol – n.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...... “shells”
n = K, L, M, N, ......
The electron’s energy depends principally on n .
69
Quantum Numbers
 The angular momentum quantum number has
the symbol .
 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .......(n-1)
 = s, p, d, f, g, h, .......(n-1)
  tells us the shape of the orbitals.
 These orbitals are the volume around the atom
that the electrons occupy 90-95% of the time.
This is one of the places where Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty principle comes into play.
70
Quantum Numbers
 The symbol for the magnetic quantum number is m.

m = -  , (-  + 1), (-  +2), .....0, ......., ( -2), ( -1), 
 If  = 0 (or an s orbital), then m = 0.
– Notice that there is only 1 value of m.
This implies that there is one s orbital per n value. n  1
 If  = 1 (or a p orbital), then m = -1,0,+1.
– There are 3 values of m.
Thus there are three p orbitals per n value. n  2
71
Quantum Numbers
 If  = 2 (or a d orbital), then m = -2,-1,0,+1,+2.
Thus there are five d orbitals per n value. n  3
 If  = 3 (or an f orbital), then m  = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2, +3.
Thus there are seven f orbitals per n value, n
 Theoretically, this series continues on to g,h,i, etc. orbitals.
– Practically speaking atoms that have been discovered or made up to this point in time only have electrons in s, p, d, or f orbitals in their ground state
configurations.
72
Quantum Numbers
 The last quantum number is the spin quantum number
which has the symbol ms.
 The spin quantum number only has two possible values.
– ms = +1/2 or -1/2
– ms = ± 1/2
 This quantum number tells us the spin and orientation of
the magnetic field of the electrons.
 Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 discovered the Exclusion
Principle.
– No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of 4
quantum numbers.
73
Atomic Orbitals
 Atomic orbitals are regions of space where

the probability of finding an electron about an
atom is highest.
 s orbital properties:
– There is one s orbital per n level.
 =0 1 value of m
74
Atomic Orbitals
 s orbitals are spherically symmetric.
75
Atomic Orbitals
 p orbital properties:
– The first p orbitals appear in the n = 2 shell.
 p orbitals are peanut or dumbbell shaped volumes.
– They are directed along the axes of a Cartesian coordinate
system.
 There are 3 p orbitals per n level.
– The three orbitals are named px, py, pz.
– They have an  = 1.
– m = -1,0,+1 3 values of m
76
Atomic Orbitals
 p orbitals are peanut or dumbbell shaped.
77
Atomic Orbitals
 d orbital properties:
– The first d orbitals appear in the n = 3 shell.
 The five d orbitals have two different shapes:
– 4 are clover leaf shaped.
– 1 is peanut shaped with a doughnut around it.
– The orbitals lie directly on the Cartesian axes or are rotated
45o from the axes.
There are 5 d orbitals per n level.
–The five orbitals are named d , d , d , d , d z2
xy yz xz x 2 -y2
–They have an  = 2.
–m = -2,-1,0,+1,+2 5 values of m 

78
Atomic Orbitals
 d orbital shapes
79
Atomic Orbitals
 f orbital properties:
– The first f orbitals appear in the n = 4 shell.
 The f orbitals have the most complex shapes.
 There are seven f orbitals per n level.
– The f orbitals have complicated names.
– They have an  = 3
– m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2, +3 7 values of m
– The f orbitals have important effects in the
lanthanide and actinide elements.
80
Atomic Orbitals
 f orbital shapes
81
Atomic Orbitals
 Spin quantum number effects:
– Every orbital can hold up to two electrons.
 Consequence of the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
– The two electrons are designated as having
– one spin up  and one spin down
 Spin describes the direction of the electron’s
magnetic fields.
82
Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism
 Unpaired electrons have their spins aligned

 or 
– This increases the magnetic field of the atom.
 Atoms with unpaired electrons are called
paramagnetic .
– Paramagnetic atoms are attracted to a magnet.
83
 Paired electrons have their spins unaligned


– Paired electrons have no net magnetic field.
 Atoms with unpaired electrons are called
diamagnetic.
diamagnetic
– Diamagnetic atoms are repelled by a magnet.
84
 Because two electrons in the same orbital must

be paired, it is possible to calculate the number of
orbitals and the number of electrons in each n
shell.
 The number of orbitals per n level is given by n2.
 The maximum number of electrons per n level is
2n2.
– The value is 2n2 because of the two paired electrons.
85
Energy Level # of Orbitals Max. # of e-

n n2 2n2
1 1 2
2 4 8
You do it!
3 9 18
4 16 32
86
The Periodic Table and
Electron Configurations
 The principle that describes how the periodic

chart is a function of electronic configurations
is the Aufbau Principle.
 The electron that distinguishes an element
from the previous element enters the lowest
energy atomic orbital available.
87
 The Aufbau Principle describes the electron filling
order in atoms.
88
 There are two ways to remember the correct filling order for electrons in atoms.
1. You can use this mnemonic.
89
2. Or you can use the periodic chart .
90
 Now we will use the Aufbau Principle to determine the
electronic configurations of the elements on the periodic chart.
 1st row elements.
1s Configuration
1
1 H  1s
2
2 He  1s
91
 2nd row elements.
•Hund’s rule tells us that the electrons will fill the

p orbitals by placing electrons in each orbital
singly and with same spin until half-filled. Then
the electrons will pair to finish the p orbitals.
92
 3s
3rd row elements
3s 3p
3p Configuration
Configurat ion
3s 3p Configuration
Na Ne
Ne   Ne 33ss1 1
Ne 1
11
11
11Na Ne
Na Ne3s2
12 Mg
12 Mg Ne
Ne 
Mg Ne 

Ne  33ss2 2
Ne3s
Ne
12
13 Al Ne
Ne 
Ne 
 Ne
Ne33ss22 23p11 1
Ne3s 3p
13 Al  
13
14 Si Ne
Ne    Ne  3s 2 3p 222
2
Ne3s 2 3p 2
14 Si 
14
15 P
15
Ne     Ne3s22 3p33
16
16
S Ne    
   Ne
Ne33ss22 3p44
17 Cl
17
Ne     Ne3s22 3p55
93 18 Ar Ne     Ne3s2 3p6
 3d
4th row elements 4s 4p Configuration
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1
94
3d 4s 4p Configuration
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s 2
95
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s2
21 Sc You do it!
96
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s 2
21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1
97
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s2
21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1
Ti You do it!
22
98
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s2
21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1
Ti Ar   
22  Ar  4s2 3d 2
99
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s2
21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1
Ti Ar   
22  Ar  4s2 3d 2
V Ar    
23  Ar  4s2 3d 3
10
19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

20 Ca Ar   Ar  4s2
21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1
Ti Ar   
22  Ar  4s2 3d 2
V Ar    
23  Ar  4s2 3d3
24 Cr Ar        Ar  4s1 3d5
There is an extra measure of stability associated
10 with half - filled and completely filled orbitals.
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe You do it!
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
27 Co Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 7
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
27 Co Ar        Ar  4s 3d
2 7
28 Ni Ar        Ar  4s2 3d8
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
27 Co Ar        Ar  4s2 3d7
28 Ni Ar        Ar  4s2 3d8
29 Cu You do it!
10
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
27 Co Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 7
28 Ni Ar        Ar  4s2 3d8
29 Cu Ar        Ar  4s1 3d10
Another exception like Cr and
10 for essentially the same reason.
25 Mn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d5

26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d6
27 Co Ar        Ar  4s 3d
2 7
28 Ni Ar        Ar  4s2 3d8

29 Cu Ar        Ar  4s1 3d10
30 Zn Ar        Ar  4s2 3d10
10
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge You do it!
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s2 3d10 4p2
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s2 3d10 4p2
33 As Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p3
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s2 3d10 4p2
33 As Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p3
34 Se You do it!
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s2 3d10 4p2
33 As Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p3
34 Se Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p4
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s2 3d10 4p2
33 As Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p3
34 Se Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p4
35 Br Ar           Ar  4s2 3d10 4p5
11
31 Ga Ar         Ar  4s2 3d10 4p1

32 Ge Ar          Ar  4s 2
3d10
4p 2
33 As  Ar           Ar  4s 2
3d 10
4p 3
34 Se Ar           Ar  4s 2
3d 10
4p 4
35 Br  Ar            Ar  4s 2
3d 10
4p 5
36 Kr  Ar            Ar  4s 2
3d 10
4p 6
11
 Now we can write a complete set of quantum numbers for
all of the electrons in these three elements as examples.
– Na
– Ca
– Fe
 First for 11Na.
– When completed there must be one set of 4 quantum numbers
for each of the 11 electrons in Na
(remember Ne has 10 electrons)
3s 3p Configuration
11 11 Na Ne  Ne3s 1
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2
11
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2
6 th e - 2 1 0  1/2
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0 - 1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2
6 th e - 2 1 0  1/2
7 th e - 2 1 1  1/2
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2
6 th e - 2 1 0  1/2
7 th e - 2 1 1  1/2
8th e - 2 1 1  1/2
12
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e - 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2
6 th e - 2 1 0  1/2
7 th e - 2 1 1  1/2
8th e - 2 1 1  1/2
12 9 th e - 2 1 0  1/2
n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e- 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2 

6 th e- 2 1 0  1/2 
7 th e- 2 1  1  1/2 

2 p electrons
8th e - 2 1  1  1/2 
9 th e- 2 1 0  1/2 

12 10th e- 2 1  1  1/2 

n  m ms
1st e - 1 0 0  1/2 
1 s electrons
2 nd e - 1 0 0  1/2 
3rd e- 2 0 0  1/2 
2 s electrons
4 th e - 2 0 0  1/2 
5th e - 2 1 -1  1/2 

6 th e - 2 1 0  1/2 
7 th e - 2 1  1  1/2 

2 p electrons
8th e - 2 1  1  1/2 
9 th e - 2 1 0  1/2 

10th e - 2 1  1  1/2 

12 11th e - 3 0 0  1/23 s electron
 Next we will do the same exercise for 20Ca.

– Again, when finished we must have one set of 4 quantum numbers for each of the 20 electrons in
Ca.
 We represent the first 18 electrons in Ca with the symbol [Ar].
20 Ca [Ar]  Ar  4s 2
13
n  m ms
[ Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
13
n  m ms
[ Ar ]19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
13
 Finally, we do the same exercise for 26Fe.
– We should have one set of 4 quantum numbers for each of the 26 electrons in Fe.
 To save time and space, we use the symbol [Ar] to represent the first 18 electrons in Fe
26 Fe Ar        Ar  4s2 3d 6
13
n  m ms
[ Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
13
n  m ms
[ Ar ]19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
13
n  m ms
[ Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
13
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
21st e - 3 2 - 2  1/2
22 nd e - You do it!
13
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
22 nd e - 3 2 -1  1/2
13
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
22 nd e - 3 2 -1  1/2
23rd e - 3 2 0  1/2
13
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
22 nd e - 3 2 -1  1/2
23rd e - 3 2 0  1/2
24 th e - 3 2  1  1/2
14
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2
4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 - 2  1/2

22 nd e - 3 2 - 1  1/2 

23rd e - 3 2 0  1/2 half - filled d shell
24 th e - 3 2  1  1/2 

25th e - 3 2  2  1/2 

14
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
22 nd e - 3 2 -1  1/2
23rd e - 3 2 0  1/2
24 th e - 3 2 1  1/2
25 th e - 3 2 2  1/2
14 26 th e - You do it!
n  m ms
[Ar] 19 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

4 s electrons
20 th e - 4 0 0  1/2 

21st e - 3 2 -2  1/2
22 nd e - 3 2 -1  1/2
23rd e - 3 2 0  1/2
24 th e - 3 2 1  1/2
25 th e - 3 2 2  1/2
14 26 th e - 3 2 -2  1/2
Synthesis Question
 What is the atomic number of the element that
should theoretically be the noble gas below Rn?
 The 6 d’s are completed with element 112 and
the 7p’s are completed with element 118. Thus
the next noble gas (or perhaps it will be a noble
liquid) should be element 118.
14
Group Question
 In a universe different from ours, the laws of

quantum mechanics are the same as ours with
one small change. Electrons in this universe
have three spin states, -1, 0, and +1, rather than
the two, +1/2 and -1/2, that we have. What two
elements in this universe would be the first and
second noble gases? (Assume that the
elements in this different universe have the
same symbols as in ours.)
14
End of Chapter 5
 The study of various
spectra is one of the
fundamental tools that
chemists apply to
numerous areas of their
work.
14

CHAPTER 05 Structure of Atoms

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CHAPTER 05 Structure of Atoms

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CHAPTER 5

 The Structure of Atoms

9. The Atomic Weight Scale and Atomic Weights

15. Quantum Numbers

Proton (p,p+) 1.0073 +1

 These “rays” are emitted from cathode (- end)

 Modifications to the basic cathode ray tube

 Thomson used his modification to measure the

 Robert A. Millikan won the 1st American Nobel

 Millikan determined that the charge on a single

 Ernest Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and

 Because the atom’s mass is contained in such

 James Chadwick in 1932 analyzed the results

 There are four factors which determine a

 Mass spectrum of Ne+ ions shown below.

 6.022  10 23 31P atoms 

– Thus 1.00 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu.

 The atomic weight of an element is the

atomic weight  (0.691)(62.9 amu)

atomic weight  63.5 amu for copper

 Example 5-3: Naturally occurring chromium

 Example 5-4: The atomic weight of boron is

10.811 amu  x(10.013 amu)  1  x (11.009 amu)

 10.013 x  11.009 - 11.009 x  amu

 Note that because x is the multiplier for the 10B

 Example 5-5: What is the frequency of green

 Example 5-6: What is the energy of a photon of

 Light can strike the surface of some metals

 An absorption spectrum is formed by shining

 Every element has a unique spectrum.

 Atomic and molecular spectra are important

 Example 5-7: 1An 10orange

1 that the wavelength

 In 1913 Neils Bohr incorporated Planck’s

2. An electron may move from one discrete

3. An electron moves in a circular orbit about the

 Light of a characteristic wavelength (and

 De Broglie’s assertion was verified by

 Werner Heisenberg in 1927 developed the

 Consequently, we must must speak of the

Basic Postulates of Quantum Theory

2. Atoms or molecules emit or absorb radiation

3. The allowed energy states of atoms and

 The symbol for the magnetic quantum number is m.

 Atomic orbitals are regions of space where

 s orbitals are spherically symmetric.

 p orbitals are peanut or dumbbell shaped.

 Unpaired electrons have their spins aligned

 Paired electrons have their spins unaligned

 Because two electrons in the same orbital must

Energy Level # of Orbitals Max. # of e-

 The principle that describes how the periodic

2. Or you can use the periodic chart .

•Hund’s rule tells us that the electrons will fill the

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

21 Sc Ar    Ar  4s2 3d1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1

19 K Ar   Ar  4s1