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CIVL372 Lecture1
CIVL372 Lecture1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 CONCRETE, REINFORCED CONCRETE,
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE.
• Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand and
aggregate, which are bound chemically by
the addition of water.
n.a
Reinforcement
FIG. 1.1
Fig.1.1 shows a reinforced concrete beam under the action of bending
moments.
• One important result of the cracking is that, the
tensile zone of the beam can no more contribute
to the resistance of the beam. This part of the
beam is there simply ignored during the design
process. Resisting forces in a beam section after
the cracking is shown in Fig.1.2.
FIG. 1.2
• On the other hand, if a beam is compressed
before any lateral exterior load is applied,
superposition of flexure stresses and initial
compressive stresses will yield either totally
compressive stress on the whole concrete
section or very small tensile stress at a small
area. These are shown in Fig. 1.3.
comp. comp. comp.
Mex
Nin or
+ =
FIG. 1.3
• The initial compression applied to the
beam should be fixed in a way that it
would last through the life span of the
beam.
• This process is called “pre-stressed
concrete” and during the pre-stressing
process, steel wires or strands are used.
1.2. HISTORY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
– Dead Loads
– Live Loads
– Construction Loads (settlement in supports,
lack of it of element temperature changes
etc).
– Wind Loads
– Earthquake Loads
– etc.
• Dead Loads
-
(b) M1 influence line
+ +
- -
(c) M2 influence line
+
-
(d) M3 influence line
+ +
- -
(e) X1 influence line
+
FIG.1.4
• Wind Loads
300mm
150mm
• A typical set of stress-strain curves of
concrete is:
C14, C16, C20 and C25 are normal strength concrete and others are
regarded as high strength concrete.
• Elasticity modulus of concrete at the
age of jth day can be calculated as:
fctk=(Modulus of rupture)/2
Mechanical Properties of Steel
• In TS 500 mainly three grades of steel are
specified:
S220 (BC I)
S420 (BC III)
S500 (BC IV)
Reinforcing bars can be grouped in two classes:
P
Pm Pk
FIG. 1.5
Shaded area represents the probability of
occurrence of loads larger than Pk. Pm is
mean value of loads. It common practice to
use a conservative value grater than Pm in
design. For example a characteristic value
Pk can be considered for this purpose. If
standard deviation is the following
p equation
can be written as
p
Pk = Pm + u. (1.1)
u is a factor depending on the shaded area
in Fig.1.5.
• TS 500, which is code of practice for the design
of reinforced concrete members, specifies the
characteristic load Pk as the load given by TS
498. Therefore, the designer has not to use
equation 1.1.
R
Rk Rm
FIG. 1.6
Rk = Rm – u. R (1.2)
Pm Pk Rk Rm
FIG. 1.7
• Statistical calculation shows that the probability
of failure is rather high if Rk and Pk are used as
design values. Hundred percent safety is not
possible but probability of failure can be
reduced by increasing the design value of load
and decreasing the strength value. This can be
achieved by using appropriate factors. Dividing
Rk by a factor greater than 1 and multiplying Pk
by a factor greater than 1 design values are
obtained. Considering economic results of
collapses it is tried to achieve a probability of
failure as small as 10-5-10-7.