UNIT 8 - Sensors and Transducers

Sensors and Transducers
UNIT 8
Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Assistant Professor, IMU
Introduction
 Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system,
whether it may be a mechanical system or an electronic
system.
 A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators,

transducers and signal processing devices.
 The use of these elements and devices is not limited to

measuring systems.

Definitions of sensors and transducers
 A sensor is a device that detects changes and events in a physical
stimulus and provides a corresponding output signal that can be
measured and/or recorded. Here, the output signal can be any
measurable signal and is generally an electrical quantity.
 Actuators are devices that work opposite to sensors.
 Sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas

an actuator converts electrical signal into a physical event.
 Sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are used to

perform output function in a system

Contd...
For example, a Microphone is a Sensor, which converts

sound waves into electrical signals and a Loudspeaker is
an Actuator, which converts electrical signals into audio
signals.

Contd...
 Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form
into another form. Generally the energy is in the form of a
signal. Transducer is a term collectively used for both sensors
and actuators.

Basic requirements of sensor or transducer
 Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary.

 Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual
measurement and true value.
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical
signal and output electrical signal.
 Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same
output for constant input over a period of time.
 Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same
output for different applications with same input value.

Contd...
 Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a
stepwise change in input
 Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity.
Nonlinearity is an indication of deviation of curve of actual
measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.
 Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor
is used under extreme operating conditions.

Classification of sensors
 Acoustic
 Electric
 Magnetic
 Thermal
 Mechanical
 Optical

Temperature sensors
 Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or
even coldness that is generated by an object or system,
allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical change to that
temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.
 There are basic two types namely Contact Temperature
Sensor(using conduction principle) and Non-contact
Temperature Sensor (using convection and radiation).
 Further, these temperature sensors are subdivided into
Electro-mechanical, Resistive and Electronic.

Thermostat
 The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature
sensor or switch, that basically consists of two different metals such
as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded
together to form a Bi-metallic strip.
 The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals
produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is
subjected to heat.
 The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a
mechanical way of operating an electrical switch in thermostatic
controls and are used extensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in
vehicle radiator cooling systems.

Contd...

Contd...
 The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals
stuck together back to back.
 When it is cold, the contacts are closed and current passes
through the thermostat.
 When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and
the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the
contacts preventing the current from flowing.

Thermistor
 The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor,
whose name is a combination of the words THERM-ally
sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which changes its physical resistance when exposed to
changes in temperature.
 Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such

as oxides of nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in glass
which makes them easily damaged.
 Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature

Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is their resistance
value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature.

Contd...
 Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we
need to pass a current through it to produce a measurable
voltage output.
 Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a
suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network
and the choice of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-
determined temperature point or value.
 Some thermistors are available with PTC.

Contd...
 The characteristics of NTC thermistor is shown below.
 The relationship between resistance and temperature in an

NTC thermistor is governed by the following expression:

Contd...
 where
 RT is the resistance at temperature T (K)
 R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)
 T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)
 β is a constant, its value is dependant on the characteristics of
the material. The nominal value is taken as 4000.
 From the above equation(1), the temperature coefficient of
resistance is defined as
 This negative sign indicates the negative resistance-

temperature characteristics of the NTC thermistor.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
 Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is
the Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD.
 RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-
purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel
wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a
function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
 Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin
film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic
substrate.

Contd...
 Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature
coefficients (PTC) but unlike the thermistor their output is
extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature.
 However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a
change in temperature only produces a very small output
change for example, 1Ω/oC.
 Like the thermistor, RTD’s are passive resistive devices and by
passing a constant current through the temperature sensor it is
possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with
temperature.
 Usually, RTD is used in Wheatstone Bridge network.

Thermocouple
 Thermocouple is the most commonly used type of all the
temperature sensor types.
 Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use
and their speed of response to changes in temperature, due
mainly to their small size.
 Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all
the temperature sensors from below -200oC to well over
2000oC.
 Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically
consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper
and constantan that are welded or crimped together.

Contd...
 One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the
reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot)
junction.
 When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a
voltage is developed across the junction which is used to
measure the temperature as shown below.

Contd...
 The operating principle of a thermocouple is very simple and
basic.
 When fused together the junction of the two dissimilar
metals such as copper and constantan produces a “thermo-
electric” effect which gives a constant potential difference of
only a few millivolts (mV) between them.
 The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the
“Seebeck effect” as a temperature gradient is generated
along the conducting wires producing an emf.
 Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of
the temperature changes.

Contd...
 If both the junctions are at the same temperature, the
potential difference across the two junctions is zero in other
words, no voltage output as V1 = V2.
 However, when the junctions are connected within a circuit
and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will
be detected relative to the difference in temperature
between the two junctions, V1 – V2.
 Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different
materials enabling extreme temperatures of between -200oC
to over +2000oC to be measured.

Differences between RTD,
Thermocouple and Thermistor

Pressure Transducers
 Pressure control is an important process in many industrial applications
requiring accurate measurement and control.
 Two broad categories of pressure measurement: Mechanical pressure

transducers and Electrical pressure transducers.
 Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from

expanding and is expressed in terms of force per unit area.
 Pressure sensor acts as a transducer which can measure pressure of

liquids or gases.
 Pressure sensors are used for control, monitoring and measurement of

variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level and altitude.

Contd...
 Mechanical (Elastic) pressure transducers:
◦ Liquid Column Gauges (eg. Barometer)
◦ Manometers
◦ Bourdon tube pressure gauge
◦ Diaphragm pressure transducer
◦ Bellows
◦ Spring and Piston

Need of Electric Pressure Transducers
(EPT)
 Transmission of signals is required for remote display.
It is possible only with the transmission of electrical
signals either wired or wireless.
 Electrical signals give quicker responses and high
accuracy in digital measurements.

 Linearity property of electrical signals produced in
resposne to the appplied pressure favors simplicity.

 They can be used for extreme pressure applications.
 EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical
vibrations.

Block Diagram of EPT
Pressure
Sensing Pressure
Transducer Detection
Element indicator
Circuitry

Types of EPTs

Working principle
 The most popular pressure transducer structures comprise a
force collector such as an elastic diaphragm and a
transduction component that employs a dependent resistive,
inductive, or capacitive method to produce an electrical
signal.
 Pressure transducers utilize strain gauges to measure the
force operating on them.
 The strain gauges withstand deformation, and this
deformation produces a variation in voltage generated by it.
 The pressure measurement is based on the degree of
variation detected in the voltage.

Strain Gauge Pressure transducer

Contd...
 Strain gauge pressure transducer is mainly used to gauge very
low, high & differential pressures.
 Here, differential pressure is nothing but the variation within
pressure among any two specified points.
 This kind of transducer includes an element for detecting namely
a diaphragm.
 Any diaphragm deformation will cause the resistance change for
the strain gauges.
 Usually, in a Wheatstone bridge, there are four gauges are used
to enhance the transducer’s sensitivity.
 So, this resistance change is changed into the utilizable output
signal.

Capacitance Pressure transducer
 This kind of pressure transducer is used to measure the
pressure through sensing the changes within electrical
capacitance because of the diaphragm movement. This
capacitance transducer includes a diaphragm, two
capacitor plates & an electrode that is connected to an
unpressurized face.

Contd...

Contd...

Contd...

Piezoelectric pressure transducer

Piezoresistive transducer

Potentiometer pressure transducer

Contd...
 A potentiometric pressure transducer includes an exact
potentiometer that includes a wiper and is connected to a
diaphragm element.
 The deflection on the diaphragm will change the wiper
position.
 The value of resistance will be changed among the wiper as
well as one finish of the potentiometer.
 The resistance value is the measure of the applied pressure.

Resonant pressure transducer

Contd...
 This type of transducer includes a vibrating wire that is
positioned within a diaphragm.
 The oscillator maintains the wire vibrating.
 When the pressure is modified within the diaphragm, then it
will affect the pressure of the wire as well as alters the
resonant frequency.
 This resonant frequency can be detected through digital
counter circuits for changing into an electrical signal.

Inductive transducers
 An inductive pressure transducer works on the electromagnetic
induction principle. Example: LVDT
 It is used to to measure required physical quantities like displacement
(rotary or linear), force, pressure, velocity, torque, acceleration, etc.
 This type of transducer includes a diaphragm that is connected to a
ferromagnetic core.
 The minor diaphragm deflection can cause the linear movement
within the ferromagnetic core to induce a current.
 The core movement can change the induced current because of the
pressure change.
 So the change within current can be converted into a utilizable signal.

Contd...

Flow meters
 Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an
essential requirement for maintaining the quality of industrial
processes.
 The common types of flowmeters that find industrial
applications can be listed as below:

◦ Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area)
◦ Inferential (turbine type)
◦ Electromagnetic
◦ Positive displacement (integrating)
◦ Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding),
◦ Anemometer
◦ Ultrasonic
◦ Mass flowmeter (Coriolis).
Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube are the examples of
obstruction type flowmeters.

Magnetic Flow Meters
 These are the first type of flow meters to be considered for
high corrosive applications and applications involving
measurement of erosive slurries.
 These meters work on the principle of Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that whenever a
conductor moves through a magnetic field of given
strength, a voltage is induced in the conductor
proportional to relative velocity between the conductor and
 magnetic field.
 In case of flow meters , electrically conductive flowing
liquids work as the other conductor.
 The voltage induced is given by the equation:
E= C*B*L*V

Contd...
 E = induced voltage in volts
 C = dimensional constants
 B = magnetic flux in Wb/sq.m
 L = length of the conductor in m
 V = velocity of conductor in m/s
 The equation to convert a velocity measurement to
volumetric flow rate is

Q = V*A
Q = volumetric flow rate
V = fluid velocity and A= cross sectional area of the flowmeter

Contd...
 V= E/(C*B*L)
 Hence Q = (E* A)/(C*B*L)
 For a given flow meter, A,B, C and L are contants.
 So, Q = K*E where K = A/(C*B*L)
 Hence the induced voltage is directly proportional to
volumetric flow rate.

Construction

Contd...
 The Magnetic Flow Meter Construction consists of an electrically
 insulated or non conducting pipe, such as fiber glass, with a pair
of electrodes mounted opposite each other and flush with the
inside walls of the pipe, and with the magnetic coil mounted
around the pipe so that a magnetic field is generated in a plane
mutually perpendicular to the axis of the flow meter body and
to the plane of the electrodes.
 • If a metal pipe is used, an electrically insulating liner is

provided on the inside of the pipe.

Contd...
 The length L is the distance between the electrodes and equals the
pipe diameter. As liquid passes through the pipe section, it also
passes through the magnetic field set up by the magnet coils, thus
inducing a voltage in the liquid, which is detected by a pair of
electrodes mounted on the pipe wall.
 The amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity
of the flowing liquid.
 The magnetic coils may be excited by either ac or dc voltage.
Currently, pulsating dc in which magnetic coils are periodically
energized is used.
 Magnetic Flow Meter Construction meters are available in sizes
from 2.54 —2540 mm in diameter, with an accuracy range of ± 0.5
to ± 2%. The measurement taken by these meters are independent
of viscosity, density, temperature and pressure.
Contd...
Advantages:
 It can handle slurries and greasy materials.
 It can handle corrosive fluids.
 It has very low pressure drop.
 It is totally obstruction less.
 It is available in large pipe sizes and capacity as well as in several
construction materials.
 It is capable of handling low flows and very high-volume flow rate.
Disadvantages:
 It is relatively expensive.
 It is relatively heavy, especially in larger sizes.

Level Sensor
 Liquid level sensors have been around for decades, in markets
such as food and beverage, industrial, medical and domestic,
printing, agriculture, automotive and white goods for leak
detection or level measurement.
 Level Sensors can be broken into two classifications:
◦ Point level measurement
◦ Continuous level measurement
 Point level measurement indicates when a product is present
at a certain point and continuous level measuring indicates
the continuous level of a product as it rises and falls.

Contd...
 The sensors for point level indication are:
◦ Capacitance
◦ Optical
◦ Conductivity
◦ Vibrating (Tuning fork)
◦ Float Switch
 The sensors for continuous level measuring are:

◦ Ultrasonic
◦ Radar (Microwave)

Contd...

Capacitance Level Sensor
 Capacitive level transducer is an example of indirect
measurement of level.

Contd...
 The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on
change of capacitance.
 An insulated electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the
tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic vessel) acts
as the other plate.
 The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An empty tank has a
lower capacitance while a filled tank has a higher capacitance.
 A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by
a small thickness of an insulator such as solid, liquid, gas, or
vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric.
 Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also
distance between the plates.
 Measurement is made by applying an RF signal between the
conductive probe and the vessel wall.

Contd...
 The RF signal results in a very low current flow through the
dielectric process material in the tank from the probe to the
vessel wall.
 When the level in the tank drops, the dielectric constant
drops causing a drop in the capacitance reading and a minute
drop in current flow.

Optical level sensor
 Optical sensors work by converting light rays into
electrical signals which measure a physical quantity of
light then translate it into a measurement.
◦ These sensors have no moving parts
◦ They are not affected by high pressure or temperature
◦ They are small in size
◦ They can be used in liquid applications
 However, if the lens gets coated or dirty they would
require cleaning.
 They can be used as low-level indicators to prevent run
dry conditions when using oil, coolant, or hydraulics.

Contd...
 Optical level switch uses the principle of total reflection in a
prism. Reflection or penetration, is the basis of the level alarm
output. When the sensor is surrounded by air, the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle and thus total
reflection occurs.
 Totally reflected light will be transmitted to the receiver.
Conversely, when the sensor is surrounded by liquid, due to
the refractive index of the liquid and the sensor tip material,
almost all light will penetrate the front of the sensor.

Conductivity (Resistance) Level Sensor
 A conductivity or resistance sensor uses a probe to read
conductivity. The probe has a pair of electrodes and applies
alternating current to them.
 When a liquid covers the probe its electrodes form a part on
an electric circuit, causing current to flow which signals a high
or low level.

Contd...
 The advantages of using a conductivity level
sensor are:
◦ There are no moving parts
◦ They are low cost
◦ Fairly easy to use
 The disadvantages are:

◦ They are invasive (meaning they must touch the
product being sensed)
◦ They only sense conductive liquids
◦ The probe will erode over time

Vibrating (Tuning Fork) Level Sensor
 The vibrating fork type level sensor works on the principle of
tuning forks.
 There is a Piezo ceramic crystals located inside the fork
assembly.
 They use a fork-shaped sensing element with two tines. The fork
vibrates at its natural resonant frequency. As the level changes,
the frequency of the fork will change detecting the level.
 On the application of voltage, the crystals oscillate at the natural
frequency of the fork assembly.
 This frequency is continuously monitored by the internal
electronic circuitry.

Contd...
When the fork comes in contact with liquids/solid material, the

frequency slightly changes, and this change in frequency is sensed
by the electronic circuit which in turn send out a signal.
This signal is processed to give out as a relay output either N.O or
N.C. signal which in turn indicates Level signal either Low or High
depends on application.

Float Switch
 Float switches use a float, a device that will raise or lower when a
product is applied or removed, which will open or close a circuit
as the level raises or lowers moving the float.
 All float operated liquid level controls operate on the basic
buoyancy principle which states “the buoyancy force action on an
object is equal to the mass of liquid displaced by the object.”
 As a result, floats ride on the liquid surface partially submerged
and move the same distance the liquid level moves.
 Because of this, they are normally used for narrow level
differential applications such as high level alarm or low level
alarm.

Contd...

Contd...
 Rising liquid level lifts the float, sliding the attraction sleeve
up inside the enclosing tube and into the magnetic field to
actuate the electrical or pneumatic switch.
 Subsequently, falling liquid level lowers the float, drawing the
attraction sleeve out of the magnetic field to deactuate the
electrical or pneumatic switch.
 The advantages of a float switch are:
◦ They are non powered device
◦ They provide a direct indication
◦ They are inexpensive

Contd...
 The disadvantages are:
◦ They are invasive to the product
◦ They have moving parts
◦ They can be large in size
 Applications:
 Level alarms and controls in power plants,
petrochemical plants and refineries, chemical plants,
paper mills, sugar mills, ships etc (Wherever liquid
flows in and out of tanks/pressure vessels/sumps)

Ultrasonic Level Sensor
 Ultrasonic level sensors work by emitting and receiving
ultrasonic waves. The time it takes for the waves to reflect back
is how distance is measured.
 An ultrasonic level transmitter is mounted on the top of the tank
and transmits an ultrasonic pulse down into the tank.
 This pulse, travelling at the speed of sound, is reflected back to
the transmitter from the liquid surface.
 The transmitter measures the time delay between the
transmitted and received echo signal and the on-board
microprocessor calculates the distance to the liquid surface
using the formula.
Distance = ( Speed of sound in air x time delay) / 2

Contd...
Once the transmitter is programmed with the bottom reference
of the application – usually the bottom of the tank – the liquid
level is calculated by the microprocessor.The basic equation for
calculating the tank level is
Level = Tank Height – Distance

Contd...
 Advantages:
 easy to install on empty tanks or on tanks containing liquid.
 no contact with the media and no moving parts, the devices are
virtually maintenance free.
 Because the device is non-contacting, the level measurement is
unaffected by changes in the liquid density, dielectric, or
viscosity, and performs well on aqueous liquids and many
chemicals.
 Changes in process temperature will change the speed of the
ultrasonic pulse through the space above the liquid, but built-in
temperature compensation automatically corrects this.
 Changes in process pressure do not affect the measurement.

Contd...
 Disadvantages:
 Ultrasonic transmitters rely on the pulse being unaffected
during its flight time.
 Materials of construction generally limit the process
temperature to around 158 °F (70 °C) and pressure to 43 psig
(3 bar).
 Obstructions in the tank, such as pipes, strengthening bars
and agitators, will cause false echoes.

Radar Level Sensor
 Radar or microwave is also a continuous level sensor.
 These sensors transmit microwaves by an antenna on the radar
sensor.
 The product that is being sensed reflects these microwaves back to
the antenna and the time from emission to reception of the signal
is proportional to the level of the product.
 Non-contacting pulse radar sends out a microwave signal that
bounces off the product surface and returns to the sensor.
 The transmitter measures the time delay between the transmitted
and received echo signal and the on-board microprocessor
calculates the distance to the liquid surface using the formula:
Distance = (Speed of light x time delay) / 2

Contd...
 Once the transmitter is programmed with the tank reference
height of the application – usually the bottom of the tank or
chamber – the liquid level is calculated by the microprocessor.
Level = Tank Height – Distance

Contd...
 Adavantages:
◦ Non-contacting type
◦ It can be used with liquids, sludges, slurries, and some
solids.
◦ No compensation is necessary for changes in density,
dielectric, or conductivity of the fluid.
◦ Changes in pressure, temperature, and most vapor space
conditions have no impact on the accuracy of radar
measurements.
◦ Maintenance is minimal because of no moving parts.

Contd...
 Disadvantages:
◦ For non-contacting radar, good installation is the key to
success.
◦ Obstructions in the tank, such as pipes, strengthening bars and
agitators can cause false echoes
◦ Non-contacting radar can handle agitation, but their success
will depend on a combination of the fluid properties and the
amount of turbulence.
◦ With low dielectric process fluids, much of the radiated energy
is lost to the fluid, leaving very little energy to be reflected
back to the sensor.
◦ If the surface is turbulent, then more signal is lost.


UNIT 8 - Sensors and Transducers

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UNIT 8 - Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators,

 The use of these elements and devices is not limited to

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 Actuators are devices that work opposite to sensors.

 Sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas

 Sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are used to

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

For example, a Microphone is a Sensor, which converts

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary.

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such

 Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 The relationship between resistance and temperature in an

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 This negative sign indicates the negative resistance-

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

 Two broad categories of pressure measurement: Mechanical pressure

 Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from

 Pressure sensor acts as a transducer which can measure pressure of

 Pressure sensors are used for control, monitoring and measurement of

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

accuracy in digital measurements.

resposne to the appplied pressure favors simplicity.

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,

applications can be listed as below:

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar,