Indian Logic

Pramanas
[Malayalam]
Pramanas

• Knowledge can be termed as Prama (Valid) and Aprama (Invalid).

• The concept Pramana is derived from the Sanskrit root, Prama which
means "correct notion, true  knowledge, basis, foundation, accurate
notion"
• Hence Pramana is valid means of knowledge.
• Pramana literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".
• It is a theory of knowledge, and encompasses one or more reliable and
valid means by which human beings gain accurate and true
knowledge.
•This world features four basic constituents stated as
• Pramata, the knower
• Prameya, the knowables,
• Pramana, the process of knowing, and,
• Pramiti, the knowledge achieved by the pramana.
•All worldly entities must fall either under the category of
• Prameya, the knowables or
• Pramana, the process of knowing;
•In fact while we speak or even think about the process of knowing,
pramana also happens to fall under the character of Prameya.

•As per Vedas philosophy, pramana are six in numbers.

Types of Pramanas

1. Perception (Pratyakṣa)
2. Inference (Anumana)
3. Comparison and analogy (Upamana)
4. Postulation derivation from circumstances (Arthapatti)
5. Non-perception, negative/cognitive proof (Anupalabdhi)
6. Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts (Sabda).
Perception (Pratyaksa)

• Perception is something which is right in front of our eyes. Perception is

defined  by sense-object contact and is unerring (always right or accurate.).
• It is the first Pramana that enables a person to have correct cognition of
the  world. It is to be noted perception in English has a different meaning
which is  from point of view of someone.
• In Indian philosophy, perception, the first of the five means of knowledge,
or  Pramanas, enable a person to have a correct understanding of the
world.
•Pratyaksha is of two kinds:

• Direct perception (anubhava)

• Remembered perception (smriti)

•Perception can be broadly classified as two types.

• 1. Ordinary (Laukika or Sādhārana)

• 2. Extra-ordinary (Alaukika or Asādhārana)
 Ordinary
(Laukika or Sadharana Pratyaksha)
• It means having direct interaction of
worldly object with our senses (any
of the 5 senses).  Laukik Pratyaksha
can be further classified as below:
•This can be divided into:
• External — when your five senses
interact with the world outside
• Internal — perception of inner sense
or the mind
EXTERNAL PERCEPTION INTERNAL PERCEPTION
Perceived through five senses (Sensory Inner sense, the mind
Perception)
1. Visual perception by the eyes. Cognitive Perception
2. Olfactory perception by the nose.
3. Auditory perception by the ears. Feeling like: depressed, hungry, tired
4. Tactile perception by the skin. etc.
5. Taste perception by the tongue.
6. Mental awareness.
• The ‘external’ perception implies cognition of sense objects, namely -sound, touch, form,  taste
and smell by our five sense organs (ears, skin, eyes, tongue and nose).
• When the sense organs contact their respective objects then the Pratyaksha knowledge  takes
place.
• The ‘internal’ perception means the direct & immediate cognition of pain, pleasure, love,  hate,
anger, knowledge or ignorance of various objects etc. in & by our minds.

•The Acharyas elaborately reveal that in any direct perception, the awareness  existing at the level
of mind of the person desirous to know an object, as though flows out  through his respective
sense organ and envelops the available & illumined object.
• In all direct perception the knowledge is extremely clear but its scope is very limited.
• What we can directly see not only constitutes an extremely small iota of the wide  spectrum of
things existing in this universe, but many a times that which is directly cognized  is far from truth.
 Extra-ordinary (Alaukika or Asadharana Pratyaksha)
• It means having indirect interaction of worldly object. Alaukika or
Asadharana Pratyaksha can be further classified as below

Alaukik Pratyaksha (Extra Ordinary Perception)

Samanya Perceiving generality from a particular object.
Lakshna

Jnana Lakshna When one sense organ can also perceive qualities not attributable
to it.

Yogaj When certain human beings, through the power of Yoga,

can perceive past, present and future and have complete or
partial supernatural abilities.
 Ordinary (Laukika or Extra-ordinary (Alaukika or
Sadharana Asadharana Pratyaksha)
Pratyaksha)
1. Visual 1. Samanya Lakshna
2. Olfactory 2. Jnana Lakshna
3. Auditory 3. Yogaj
4. Tactile
5. Taste
6. Mental
CONCEPT OF PERCEPTION WITH PROCESS

•According to Nyaya, perception or Pratyaksha is considered to

be the first source of knowledge or pramana.
• Perception is a definite or true cognition of objects
produced by sense-object contact.
•For example, the perception of the black book in front of me is
possible due to contact that occurs between my eyes and the object,
the black book.
•According to Gautama, perception means non-erroneous
cognition, which is produced by the inter-course of the sense
organs with the objects.
 • Six different kinds of laukika or ordinary perceptions
• Visual perception (Cakshusha)
• Auditory perception (Srautra)
• Tactual perception (Sparsha)
• Gustatory perception (Rasana)
• Olfactory perception (Ghranaja)
• Internal perception or mental perception (Manasa)
Stages of Perception

• According to Nyaya school, there are two stages of perception, namely,

• 1. Indeterminate
• 2. Determinate perception.
• Indeterminate is also called Nirvikalpa when one just perceives an
object without being able to know its features.
• Determinate perception is also called Savikalpa when one is able to
clearly know an object.
• These are different in thought only not in reality.
 Indeterminate or Nirvikalpa perception Determinate perception or Savikalpa perception

It deals with bare sensation or simple apprehension of This perception is determinate and relational in nature.
the object. It deals with assimilation, discrimination, analysis and
In other words, it is the stage of bare awareness synthesis.
where It is representational in nature.
the object is presented without any characterization. Here, the perception is characterized, in other words, all
It is psychological in nature but its knowledge is logical the attributes, like, name, genus, etc.
in nature. are understood.
Nyaya says, it is undifferentiated and non- We feel this perception.
relational in nature.
As a result, it is free from assimilation, discrimination,
analysis and synthesis.
According to Nyaya, we sense this perception and
due to which indeterminate perception is inferred into
perceptual judgement.
In other words, it is the result of logical
deduction.
 TWO STAGES OF PERCEPTION

Indeterminate or Nirvikalpa perception Determinate perception or Savikalpa

perception
First stage of Perception
Second stage

Psychological in nature but its knowledge is This perception can be felt.

logical in nature.
It deals with assimilation,
The perception is inferred as well. discrimination,
analysis and synthesis.
Free from assimilation,
discrimination, analysis and synthesis.
• It is important to note that these are not the two different kinds of
perception.
• Actually these are the two stages of perception.

• In other words, indeterminate or Nirvikalpa is the former stage of

perception and determinate or Savikalpa is the latter stage of
perception.
• These two can only be distinguished or divided in thought and not in
reality.
• Literally translated the word anumana means ‘knowing after’.
•It means the method by which knowledge is derived
from another knowledge. It is an indirect, mediate knowledge.
•We have knowledge of an invariable relationship between two things and on that basis
while seeing one we deduce the presence the other. Thus anumana refers to the logical
process of gaining knowledge.
• In all inferential knowledge there are definite steps to be followed.
• The following steps are accepted for logical deduction of
knowledge by the teachers of Advaita Vedanta :
• a. Perceptual evidence - We see smoke on the hill
• b. Invariable concomitance - Wherever there is smoke there is fire, as seen in kitchen.
• c. Conclusion - Therefore the hill has fire
Hence Anumana means knowledge based on prior knowledge.
• Excluding Charvaka School of Philosophy, all major school of
philosophies accept Anumana pramana.
• Let us understand some major terms with the help of below example from
Nyaya School of Philosophy:
 Classification of Anumana
Anumana is broadly classified in 3 major categories:
• 1. Psychological Classification of Inference
• 2. Classification based on the Nature of Vyapti
• 3. Classification based on Induction

Psychological Nature of Vyapti Induction

1. ‘Swartha Anumana’ 1. Purvavat Inference 1. Kevalânvayi inference
2. ‘Pararth Anumana’ 2. Sesavat Inference 2. Kevalâvyatirek
3. Samanyato Drista i inference
3. Anvayavyatirek
i inference :
•1. Psycological Classification of Inference can be broken as
• ‘Swartha Anumana’
• ‘Pararth Anumana’
•A.) Svarth Anumana: If a person wants to infer something for himself, it is called svârth Anumâna.
• Therefore, it is defined as an inference for one’s own conviction.
• Example: A person who perceives a patch of smoke remembers that there is a universal relation
between smoke and fire and finally infers that there is fire in the hill.
•B.) Pararth Anumana: An inference is said to be Pararth Anumâna when an inference is done in order
to convince others. This inference is done when someone, after inferring for
himself fire from smoke expresses it in five-membered syllogism to carry his conviction to another.
•2. Classification on the Basis of Nature of Vyapti
•A.) Purvavat inference: Where the effect is inferred from cause
• E.g.: from a specific height, density etc. (precisely Unati) of clouds (one infers that) it will be
raining.
• Rain is inferred from clouds.
•B.) Sesavat inference: Where cause is inferred from effect from the fullness of river that has excess
water, which is distinct from old water and high speed of current it had been
raining before.
• E.g.: Effect: fullness of river and excess water is caused by rain
•C.) Samanyato Drista inference: Can be termed as ‘Generally what it looks like’ It has been
observed that something changes its position due to movement (vrajya)
• E.g.: The sun too (changes its position) Therefore, the sun too has movement, although
the movement has not seen.
•3. Classification on the basis of induction
•A.) Kevalânvayi inference: When Vyapti between the middle and the major term is
derived from uniform agreement in presence alone, it is called Kevalânvayi
inference. In this inference the hetu has affirmative concomitance with sadhya
only.
•For example, All knowable objects are nameable; The pot is a knowable
object; Therefore thepot is nameable.
•B.) Kevalâvyatireki inference: When Vyapti between middle and the major is derived
from uniform agreement in absence alone, it is called kevalâvyatireki inference. In
this inference hetu is only negatively related to the sadhya.
•For example: What is not different from other elements has no smell; The earth
has smell; therefore the earth is different from other elements.
•C.) Anvayavyatireki inference : When the middle term in an inference is
both positively and negatively related to the major term, it is
called anvayavyatireki inference. In it there is a Vyapti or universal
relation between the hetu and the sadhya in respect of both their
presence and absence.
• For example:
• a) All smoky objects are fiery; The hill is smoky; Therefore the hill is
fiery.
• b) No non-fiery object is smoky; The hill is smoky Therefore the hill is
not non- fiery; That is, the hill is fiery.
 • 3. Comparison(Upamana)
•Upamana is described as the knowledge derived from similarity. It is third
source of valid knowledge.
• Up means “Similarity”
• Mana means “Knowledge”
•Hence, Upamana derivatively means the knowledge of the similarity between
two things.
• Keep in mind the difference between Anumana and Upamana : Anumana talks about
Universal Applicable truth. E.g.: Smoke is present in Fire holds true across the globe
whereas Upamana is based on Analogy and may not be based on Universal truth but
based on our thoughts.
• Mimamsakas & Advaitins define Upamana as the process by which the knowledge of A’s similarity
to B is gained from the perception of B’s similarity to A, which has been seen elsewhere.
• This methodology is seen as distinct from mere inference, and is thus accepted as
a valid mediate method of knowledge.
• For example, a person who has seen his cow at home goes to a forest and sees a gavaya (a
wild cow but without dewlap).
• The person sees the similarity ‘This gavaya is like my cow’,
and on this basis also concludes the opposite to be equally true, that ‘My cow is like this gavaya’.
Thus by Upamana he gains the knowledge of his cow’s similarity to the gavaya from the
• perception of the gavaya’s similarity to his cow.
 Components of Upamana
• 1. The subject of comparison is formally called upameyam,
• 2. The object of comparison is called upamanam,
• 3. The attribute(s) are identified as samanya

Subject of comparison Upameyam

Object of comparison Upamanam

Attribute(s) Samanya
Comparison(Upamana)

•Upamana is described as the knowledge derived from similarity. It is third

source of valid knowledge.
• • Up means “Similarity”
• • Mana means “Knowledge”
•Hence, Upamana derivatively means the knowledge of the similarity between
two things.
• • Keep in mind the difference between Anumana and Upamana : Anumana talks
about Universal Applicable truth. E.g.: Smoke is present in Fire holds true across the
globe whereas Upamana is based on Analogy and may not be based on Universal
truth but based on our thoughts.
• • Mimamsakas & Advaitins define Upamana as the process by which the knowledge of A’s similarity
to B is gained from the perception of B’s similarity to A, which has been seen elsewhere.
• • This methodology is seen as distinct from mere inference, and is thus accepted as
a valid mediate method of knowledge.
• • For example, a person who has seen his cow at home goes to a forest and sees a gavaya (a
wild cow but without dewlap).
• • The person sees the similarity ‘This gavaya is like my cow’,
and on this basis also concludes the opposite to be equally true, that ‘My cow is like this gavaya’.
Thus by Upamana he gains the knowledge of his cow’s similarity to the gavaya from the
• perception of the gavaya’s similarity to his cow.
 Components of Upamana
• 1. The subject of comparison is formally called upameyam,
• 2. The object of comparison is called upamanam,
• 3. The attribute(s) are identified as samanya

Subject of comparison Upameyam

Object of comparison Upamanam

Attribute(s) Samanya
Word (Sabda)

•• Sabda means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.

•• The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from
• the Sabda of reliable sources.
•• According to Nyaya School it is fourth and last valid source of knowledge.
•• Testimony of past or present reliable experts (also called ‘Aptavakya’).
•• Aptavakya - It is defined as the statement of a trustworthy person.
•• Apta - Those who always tell the truth.
•• Vakya - Sentence- A sentence is defined as a collection of words.
•• Words- Word is defined as that which is potent to convey its meaning.
•This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written.
•Sabda is to be deemed valid when its meaning has been properly and carefully understood.
• CONDITIONS OF SABDA PRAMANA
• 1. Akanksha: It is mutual implication or expectancy. It is the capacity of the words to
become objects of enquiry. When we hear a word describing or signifying a course of action
something of that course of action becomes our object of enquiry. The words of a sentence
are interrelated and stand in need of one another in order to express a complete sense. A
mere aggregate of unrelated words will not make a logical sentence. It will be sheer
nonsense, e.g., ‘cow horse man elephant’.
• 2. Yogyata: the words should possess the fitness to convey the sense and should not
contradict the meaning. For e.g., ‘water the plants with fire’, it is a contradictory sentence. It
is the condition of consistency.
• 3. Sannidhi: The third condition is the close proximity of the words to one another. The
words must be spoken in quick secession without any long intervals. If the words ‘bring’, ‘a’,
‘cow’ are uttered at long intervals they would not make a logical sentence. It is defined as
contiguity.
• 4. Tatparya: The valid of a sentence depends on it purport not on its literal meaning. It is the
condition of the intention of the speaker if the words are ambiguous. For e.g., the word’
saindhva’ means salt as well as horse. Now if a man who is taking his food asks another to
bring ‘saindhava’, the latter should not bring a horse. Hence this condition can also be said to
be interpreted on the basis of common sense.
 CONDITIONS OF SABDA PRAMANA

AKANSHA It is the capacity of words to become object of

enquiry.
YOGYATA The words should not contradict the meaning.
SANINIDHI The close proximity of the words to one
another.
TATPARYA The validity of sentence depends on its
purport, not its literal. (i.e. intention of the
speaker)
 Lets understand 2 broad classification of Sabda Pramana:
• 1. On the basis of source.
• Scriptural (Vaidika) – The Vaidika testimony is perfect and infallible because the
Vedas are spoken by God. Vaidika or scriptural testimony is thus perfect and
infallible by its very nature.
• Secular(Laukika) – Being the words of human beings who are liable to errors, is
not infallible. But Laukika or secular testimony is not all valid.
• It is the testimony of human beings and may, therefore, be true or false of
Laukika testimony, only that which proceeds from trustworthy persons is valid,
but not the rest.
• 2. On the basis of object.
• There are two kinds of Sabda, namely, that relating to perceptible objects
(drstartha) and that relating to imperceptible objects (adrstartha).
• Perceptible objects (drstartha) - The first one deals with perceptible objects
in which we include the trustworthy assertions of ordinary persons, saints,
and the scriptures. For instance, we can talk about the assertions of a reliable
farmer regarding the proper cultivation of crops.
• Imperceptible objects (adrstartha)- Adrstartha relates to imperceptible objects
such as acceptable statements of common men, saints, religious texts,
statements of scientists concerning atoms, beliefs of religious texts. It refers to
the object which cannot be seen or verified.
 4. Postulation Derivation from Circumstances (Arthapatti)
• Artha means “Significance”
• Apatti means “Supposition” (Kalpana)
• Arthapatti is supposition of a cause (Cause here is Assumed).
• Arthapatti is knowledge arrived at through presumption or postulation. Many Indian
scholars considered this pramana as invalid or at best weak, because the boat may
have gotten delayed or diverted.
• Arthapatti is considered as fifth source of Pramana.
• The means of presumption (Karan) is the knowledge of the inner contradiction
(Anupatti) and it is the result of reconciliation of the contradiction (Upatti).
•• This means postulation, supposition or presumption of a fact.
•• It is a distinct valid method of mediate knowledge.
• • It is in fact a method of assumption of an unknown fact in order to

account for a known fact that is otherwise inexplicable.

• • The classic example of this method of knowledge is a fat person. He

says that he never eats in the day, then we can easily postulate
that he eats in the night, for the simple reason that without this
assumption his fatness & also his getting fatter cannot be explained.
• • For example, if a person left in a boat on river earlier, and the time is now
past the expected time of arrival, then the circumstances support the
truth postulate that the person may have reached its destination.
•• It is to be noted that the essential element in pre assumption (Arrival of
boat)
• in the above example is unaccountable without presuming other fact
like ‘boat may have drowned’ or taken a different route (Not the usual
route for which time was calculated).
• • This form of postulation and deriving from circumstances is, claim the
Indian scholars, a means to discovery, proper insight and knowledge.
 Non-perception (Anupalabdhi)

• • Anupalabdhi also called as ‘negative or cognitive proof’ Anupalabdhi pramana

suggests that knowing a negative, such as "Flower has no fragnance" is a
form of valid knowledge.
• • If something can be observed or inferred or proven as non-existent or impossible,
then one knows more than what one did without such means.
•• In simple terms we can consider Anupalabdhi as Abhava .
•• Let us understand the literal meaning of Anupalabdhi by breaking it to parts:
•• Anu means “Non”
•• Uplabdhi means “Availability”
•• Anupalabdhi is the immediate knowledge of the non-existence of an object.
• • We use this method of knowledge also very often, and this is evident
from statements like -
•• ‘There is no teacher in the class-room’.
•• There is no sound here’.
•• ‘This flower has no fragrance’.