Sensors and Transducers

Unit I
Ms. Ashline George
AP, ECE, Vignan University
Measurement

Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output

Measurement output:
• interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding
the sensor
• compound response of multiple inputs

Measurement errors:
• System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and
the approximation, can be corrected by calibration
• Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be
reduced by averaging.
Basic components in a measurement system
Basic components in a measurement system are shown below:

Amplification and Conditioning

It is also important to mention that a power supply is an important

element for the entire system.
• Primary sensing element is that which receives energy
from the measured medium and produces an output.

• An instrument always extracts some energy from the

measured medium.

• Good instruments are designed to minimize this

“loading effect”.
• For an instrument to perform a desired function, it
may be necessary to convert the output of primary
sensing element to another more suitable variable.

• This function is done by a variable conversion

element.

• A specific piece of hardware may perform several

of the basic functions.
• By “manipulation" it means specifically a change in
numerical value according to some definite rule but a
preservation of the physical nature of the variable.

• For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage

signal voltage signal as input and produces an output signal
that is also a voltage but is some constant times the input.

• An element that performs such a function is called a

variable manipulation element.
• A data transmission element is required to
transmit the data, when the functional elements of
an instrument are physically separated.
• It may be as simple as shaft and bearing assembly
or as complicated as satellite telemetry.

• The information about the measured quantity is

communicated to human being, for monitoring,
control or analysis, through a data presentation
element.
• Examples: moving pen arrangement, pointer over
a scale, display devices etc.
Sensors

Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable of a

physical system or an environment

Classification of Sensors
• Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain, rotation velocity,
acceleration, pressure, force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
• Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
• Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage, current, frequency
phase; visual/images, light; magnetism.
• Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value
 INSTRUMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS

• Shows the performance of instruments to be used.

• Divided into two categories: static and dynamic
characteristics.
• Static characteristics refer to the comparison between
steady output and ideal output when the input is
constant.
• Dynamic characteristics refer to the comparison
between instrument output and ideal output when the
input changes.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. ACCURACY

• Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to

show the exact reading.
• Always related to the extent of the wrong
reading/non accuracy.
• Normally shown in percentage of error which
of the full scale reading percentage.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bar
with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a
maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an equipment
which has a suitable operating range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 - 10 bar
is found to have an error of ± 0.15 bar when
calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the reading
obtained is 2.0 bar.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Answer :
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 7.5 %
2.0 bar

• The gauge is not suitable for use for low range reading.
• Alternative : use gauge with a suitable range.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full scale
accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-
10 bar. Which gauge is more suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9
bar?

Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because the error
percentage (± 5.6%) is smaller compared to the percentage error of Sensor
B (± 55%).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

2. PRECISION

• An equipment which is precise is not necessarily

accurate.
• Defined as the capability of an instrument to
show the same reading when used each time
(reproducibility of the instrument).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

XXX
XXX

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X

High accuracy, high precision x

x

Low accuracy, low precision

Accuracy vs Precision

High Precision, but low

accuracy.

There is a systematic error.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
3. TOLERANCE

• Closely related to accuracy of an equipment

where the accuracy of an equipment is sometimes
referred to in the form of tolerance limit.
• Defined as the maximum error expected in an
instrument.
• Explains the maximum deviation of an output
component at a certain value.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

4. RANGE OR SPAN

• Defined as the range of reading between

minimum value and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
• Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an instrument which has a
reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
5. BIAS

• Constant error which occurs during the measurement of an

instrument.
• This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even without any
load applied. Therefore, if A with a weight of 70 kg weighs
himself, the given reading would be 71 kg. This would
indicate that there is a constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
6. LINEARITY
• Maximum deviation from linear relation between input and
output.
• The output of an instrument has to be linearly proportionate to
the measured quantity.
• Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage (% fs).
• The graph shows the output reading of an instrument when a
few input readings are entered.
• Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and the
straight line.
Linearity

Output
Readings

Measured Quantity
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
7. SENSIVITY
• Defined as the ratio of change in output towards the change
in input at a steady state condition.
• Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance Thermometer
changes when the temperature increases. Therefore, the unit
of sensitivity for this equipment is Ohm/°C.
Sensitivity

Most sensitive

Variation of the physical variables

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example 2:
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bar caused a
deviation of 10 degrees. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the equipment is 5 degrees/bar.
• Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x k2 x k3
x .. x kn

θi k1 k2 k3 θo
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier and a
recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V

Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C
Example :
The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is as
follows:

Input(°C) Output(Ohm)

0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the
sensitivity is the slope of the graph.
K = Δθο graph = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/°C Δθi slope
(200-100) °C
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
8. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND

Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space

• Defined as the range of input reading when there is no

change in output (unresponsive system).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
9. RESOLUTION

• The smallest change in input reading that

can be traced accurately.
• Given in the form ‘% of full scale (% fs)’.
• Available in digital instrumentation.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

10. THRESHOLD

• When the reading of an input is increased from

zero, the input reading will reach a certain value
before change occurs in the output.
• The minimum limit of the input reading is
‘threshold’.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

• Explains the behaviour system of instruments

system when the input signal is changed.
• Depends on a few standard input signals such
as ‘step input’, ‘ramp input’ dan ‘sine-wave
input’.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Step Input
• Sudden change in input signal from steady state.
• The output signal for this kind of input is known as
‘transient response’.

Input

Time
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Ramp Input
• The signal changes linearly.
• The output signal for ramp input is ‘ramp
response’.

Input

Time
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sine-wave Input
• The signal is harmonic.
• The output signal is ‘frequency response’.

Input

Time
Response time

One would like to have a

measurement system with fast
response.

In other words, the effect of the

measurement system on the
measurement should be as small as
possible.
EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS

Response from a 2nd order instrument:

Output

100%

90%

10%
tr
Time
EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS

Response from a 2nd order instrument:

1. Rise Time ( tr )
• Time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90
% of the steady state value.
2. Settling time (ts)
• Time taken for output to reach a steady state
value.
Sensor Performance Characteristics
Transfer Function:
The functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical output signal. Usually,
this relationship is represented as a graph showing the relationship between the input and
output signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute a complete description of the
sensor characteristics. For expensive sensors which are individually calibrated, this might take
the form of the certified calibration curve.
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal and output
electrical signal. The sensitivity is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal
to a small change in physical signal. As such, it may be expressed as the derivative of the transfer
function with respect to physical signal. Typical units : Volts/Kelvin. A Thermometer would have
"high sensitivity" if a small temperature change resulted in a large voltage change.
Span or Dynamic Range:
The range of input physical signals which may be converted to electrical signals by the sensor.
Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large inaccuracy. This span or
dynamic range is usually specified by the sensor supplier as the range over which other
performance characteristics described in the data sheets are expected to apply.
Sensor Performance Characteristics
Accuracy:
Generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and ideal output signals. Typical
Units : Kelvin. Sometimes this is quoted as a fraction of the full scale output. For example, a
thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5% of FSO (Full Scale Output)
Hysteresis:
Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the input stimulus is cycled up or
down. The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined as the
hysteresis. Typical units : Kelvin or % of FSO
Nonlinearity (often called Linearity):
The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified dynamic range. There
are several measures of this error. The most common compares the actual transfer function with
the `best straight line', which lies midway between the two parallel lines which encompasses the
entire transfer function over the specified dynamic range of the device. This choice of
comparison method is popular because it makes most sensors look the best.
Sensor Performance Characteristics
Noise:
All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal. The noise of the sensor
limits the performance of the system based on the sensor. Noise is generally distributed across
the frequency spectrum. Many common noise sources produce a white noise distribution, which
is to say that the spectral noise density is the same at all frequencies. Since there is an inverse
relationship between the bandwidth and measurement time, it can be said that the noise
decreases with the square root of the measurement time.
Resolution:
The resolution of a sensor is defined as the minimum detectable signal fluctuation. Since
fluctuations are temporal phenomena, there is some relationship between the timescale for the
fluctuation and the minimum detectable amplitude. Therefore, the definition of resolution must
include some information about the nature of the measurement being carried out.
Bandwidth:
All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical signal. In addition,
many sensors have decay times, which would represent the time after a step change in physical
signal for the sensor output to decay to its original value. The reciprocal of these times
correspond to the upper and lower cutoff frequencies, respectively. The bandwidth of a sensor is
the frequency range between these two frequencies.
 Industrial signal conditioning systems
• Sensors are used to convert physical variables into a
measurable energy form.

• This energy form is used to directly or indirectly give a visual

indication, as an actuator control signal or as a signal to a
controller.

• Signal conditioning refers to operation performed on signals to

convert them to a form suitable for interfacing with other
elements in the process control loop.
Principles Of Analog Signal Conditioning

• Analog signal conditioning provides the

operations necessary to transform a sensor
output in to a form necessary to interface with
other elements of the process control loop

• we often describe the effect of signal

conditioning by the term transfer function.
 Types of signal conditioning

• Signal level and bias changes

• Linearization
• Conversion
• Filtering and impedance matching
• Concept of loading
 PASSIVE CIRCUITS

• Divider circuits
• Bridge circuits
• Filter circuits
• Divider circuits

Vout=R2 Vin/R1+R2

Issues for conversion of resistance to voltage variation

1. The variation of Vout with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear.
ie, resistance varies linearly with measured variable , the
divider voltage will not very linearly.
Issues for conversion of resistance to voltage
variation in Divider ckt

1. The variation of Vout with either R1 or R2 is

nonlinear.
2. The effective output impedance of the divider is
the parallel combination of R1 and R2, so loading
effect must be considered.
3. The power rating of both the resister and sensor
must be consider.
 Bridge Circuit

• Bridge circuits are used to convert impedance

variations into voltage variation
• Bridge circuits are extensively used for
measuring component values such as R,L and C
• Bridge circuit merely compares the value of an
unknown component with that of an accurate
known component
• Operate on a null indication principle. This
means the indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it
• Very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved
using the bridges .
• Wheatstone Bridge
• This network is used in signal conditioning
applications where a sensor changes
resistance with process variable changes.
• The bridge is balanced when there is no current
through the galvanometer , or when the potential
difference at point C and D is equal, ie the potential
across the galvanometer is zero.
-

==

=
 Amplifiers
• Operational amplifier (OPAMP)
An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an
integrated circuit that uses external voltage to
amplify the input through a very high gain.
 vd = v 2 – v 1
V0=A vd =A(v2 – v1)

A is the open-loop voltage gain

Voltage controlled
voltage source

Op Amp Equivalent Circuit

TYPICAL OP AMP PARAMETERS
 Voltage Transfer Characteristic

Range where
we operate
the op amp as
an amplifier.
Inverting Amplifier
• The input signal is applied through a series input resistor RI
to the inverting input. Also, the output is fed back through
RF to the same input. The noninverting input is grounded

R 
VO    F  VIN
 R IN  RIN RF

VO  R F 
AI   -  
VF  R IN  VIN

;Where VO
VO = Output voltage
VIN = Input voltage
AI = Inverting Gain
Non inverting Amplifier
• The input signal is applied to the non-inverting
input (+VIN). The output is fed back to the
inverting input through resistor RF.

 R  RF 
VO   IN  VF
 R IN  R1 RF

V R
A NI  O  1  F
VF R IN
;Where VIN VO
VO = Output voltage
Vin= Input voltage= Vf
ANI = Noninverting Gain

Figure 11 Closed-Loop Noninverting Amplifier Circuit

• Voltage follower
• Unity gain
• High input impedance(>100 M
ohm)
• Low out put impedance( <10
ohm)
• Vout = Vin
• This circuit is used to buffer a
high impedance source
• Converting voltage at high
impedance to the same
voltage at low impedance
Summing amplifier

• Each input
contributes
to the output using the
following equation:
• Vout = -V1(R/R1) –
V2(R4/R2) -
V3(R4/R3).
• R1=R2=R3=RF or R4
• Vout=-(V1+V2+V3)
• Instrumentation Amplifier
Output from amplifier A1 with respect to ground
will be

Output from amplifier A1 with respect to ground

will be

These two voltages are fed into a differential

amplifier A3, the gain of this amplifier is given by
• VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER

I Vin

R1(R3+R5)=R2R4
I=Vin/R
Current to voltage converter
Integrator
I R  IC
IC
VIN  0 dVC d
 C  C 0  VOUT 
IR R dt dt

1
 VOUT 
RC  VIN dt
Op-Amp Differentiator
Filtering
• Output signals from sensors contains noises
• This results in error
• In practice changes in desired frequency level
output is commonly noted as noise
• Types of filters
• Low pass filter
• High pass filter
• Band pass filter
• Band rejection filter
Low Pass Filter
• Allow low frequency
and reject high
frequency
• Resistance and
capacitance in series
• i/p-resistance Figure 2.6.5 Circuitry of Low Pass Filter

• o/p-capacitance

Figure 2.6.6 Pass band for low pass filter

High Pass Filter
• Allow high frequency and reject filter.

low frequency

Figure 2.6.7 Circuitry of High Pass Filter

Figure 2.6.8 Pass band for high pass filter

Band Pass Filter
• Connecting low pass filter and high pass filter in
series
Band Reject Filter
• Band stop filter or Notch filter
• Low pass and high pass filters connected in parallel
 Analog to Digital Converter

• Most signals we want to process are analog

• i.e.: they are continuous and can take an
inifinity of values

x(t)

t
 Definition

• Digital systems require discrete digital data

• ADC converts an analog information into a
digital information

Analog ? Digital Digital System

 Examples of use

• Voltmeter

ΔV 7.77 V

• Cell phone (microphone)

Wave

Voice
 Conversion process

3 steps:
• Sampling
• Quantification
• Coding

These operations are all performed in a same

element: the A to D Converter
 Conversion process: Sampling

• Digital system works with discrete states

• The signal is only defined at determined times
• The sampling times are proportional to the
sampling period (Ts)

x(t)
Ts xs(t)

x(t) xs(t=k*Ts)

Ts t
Conversion process: Quantification
The signal can only take determined values
Belonging to a range of conversion (ΔVr)
• Based on number of bit combinations that the
converter can output
• Number of possible states:
N=2n where n is number of bits
• Resolution: Q= ΔVr/N
xs(t)
xq(t)
Q
ΔVr

t
Ts
 Conversion process: Coding

• Assigning a unique digital word to each sample

• Matching the digital word to the input signal

xq(t)
N-1
N-2

Q
ΔVr
2
1
0

t
Ts
 Accuracy

The accuracy of an ADC can be improved by

increasing:
• The sampling rate (Ts)
• The resolution (Q)
 Accuracy
xq(t)

t
Ts

Higher Sampling rate Higher Resolution

xq(t) xq(t)

t t
Ts
 Sampling rate
Nyquist-Shannon theorem: Minimum sampling rate
should be at least twice the highest data frequency of the
analog signal

fs>2*fmax
 Sampling rate

•Analog signals are composed of an infinity of harmonics

•Need to limit the frequency band to its useful part
•Use of an analog filter

Analog Analog
Filter
Analog ADC Digital

In practice: fs ≈ (3…5)*ffilter
 Example
• 8 bits converter: n=8
• Range of conversion: ΔVr=5V
• Sampling time: Ts=1ms

• Number of possible states: N=28=256

• Resolution: Q=ΔVr/N=19.5 mV
• Analog Filter: ffilter ≈ fs/5 = 200 Hz

5 255
Gain
f

0 0
Analog Digital
Types of ADCs

• Flash ADC
• Sigma-delta ADC
• Dual slope converter
• Successive approximation converter
Flash ADC

• “parallel A/D”
• Uses a series of
comparators
• Each comparator
compares Vin to a
different reference
voltage, starting w/
Vref = 1/2 lsb
 Flash ADC

Comparator is one use

of an Op-Amp
VIN
+ VOUT
VREF -
If Output
VIN > VREF High
VIN < VREF Low
 Flash ADC

Advantages Disadvantages
• Very fast • Needs many parts
(255 comparators for
8-bit ADC)
• Lower resolution
• Expensive
• Large power
consumption
 Sigma-Delta ADC

Integrator
Digital
Vin + Σ  + Sample
- - low-pass decimator
filter
Oversampler
Serial output
1-bit
DAC

• Oversampled input signal goes in the integrator

• Output of integration is compared to GND
• Iterates to produce a serial bitstream
• Output is serial bit stream with # of 1’s proportional to V in
 Sigma-Delta ADC

Advantages Disadvantages

• High resolution • Slow due to

• No precision oversampling
external
components
needed
 Dual Slope converter
Vin
tFIX tmeas
t

• The sampled signal charges a capacitor for a fixed amount of time

• By integrating over time, noise integrates out of the conversion.
• Then the ADC discharges the capacitor at a fixed rate while a
counter counts the ADC's output bits. A longer discharge time
results in a higher count.
 Dual Slope converter

Advantages Disadvantages

• Input signal is • Slow

averaged • High precision
• Greater noise external components
immunity than other required to achieve
ADC types accuracy
• High accuracy
 Successive Approximation
Is Vin > ½ ADC range?

- • Sets MSB
SAR DAC
VIN + • Converts MSB to
1000 0000
0100 analog using DAC
Out • Compares guess to
If no, then test next bit input
• Set bit
• Test next bit
 Successive Approximation

Advantages Disadvantages

• Capable of high • Higher resolution

speed successive
• Medium accuracy approximation ADCs
will be slower
compared to other
ADC types • Speed limited ~5Msps
• Good tradeoff
between speed and
cost
 ADC Types Comparison

ADC Resolution Comparison

Dual Slope
Flash
Successive Approx
Sigma-Delta

0 5 10 15 20 25
Resolution (Bits)

Type Speed (relative) Cost (relative)

Dual Slope Slow Med
Flash Very Fast High
Successive Appox Medium – Fast Low
Sigma-Delta Slow Low
Displacement and position sensor
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of amount by which some object has moved
• Position sensors are concerned with the determination of
the position of some object with reference to some
reference point
• When selecting these sensors its essential to care of :
• The size of displacement
• Nature of the displacement
• The required resolution & accuracy
• The material of the measured object
• cost
1-Potentiometer sensors (1)
• It consist of a constant resistance per unit length
with sliding contact which can be moved over the
length of the element.
• It can be used for linear or rotary displacements
With a constant source voltage Vs, the output
voltage V0 is a fractional of the input voltage
• For rotary potentiometer the output voltage is
proportional to the angle through which the slider
has rotated, hence an angular displacement can
be converted into a potential difference
Capacitive Sensors
• Electric field sensors and actuators
• operate on the physical principles of the electric field
and its effects (capacitance, charge, stored energy)
• The primary type: capacitive device.
• Some sensors such as charge sensors are better
explained in terms of the electric field
• On the whole, discussion of capacitance and its use in
sensing and actuation covers most aspects necessary for
a thorough understanding of these types of sensors
without the need to study the intricacies of the electric
field behavior.
 Capacitance
• Capacitance: the ratio between charge and Q
C= C
potential of a body V V
• Measured in coulombs/volt. This unit is
called the farad [F].
• Capacitance is only defined for two
conducting bodies, across which the
potential difference is connected.
Capacitors - cont.
• Any of the quantities in Eq. affect the capacitance
• Changes in these can be sensed. C = 0rS F
d
• A wide range of stimuli including
• displacement and anything else that can cause
displacement (pressure, force), proximity, permittivity
(for example in moisture sensors)
• a myriad of other effects are related to capacitance.
 Capacitors - cont.
• Eq. (2) describes a very specific device
• Was obtained by assuming that the electric field
between the two plates does not leak (fringes) outside
the space between the plates.
• In the more general case, when d is not small, or:
• Plates are arranged in a different configuration
• we cannot calculate the capacitance directly
• but we can still write the following:
C =  0, r, S, 1/d
Capacitors - examples
Capacitive position sensors
Capacitive position, proximity
and displacement sensors
• Position and displacement can be sensed in three
fundamental ways:
• (1) By allowing a plate to move relative to the other
(figure a).
• A number of configurations are shown next:
• the sensor is made of a single plate while the second
plate is a conductor to which the distance (proximity) is
sensed.
• Requires connection to the sensed object
Position and displacement sensing
Position sensing relative to a fixed
conductor
• A schematic position sensor is shown in below
• One plate is fixed while the other is pushed by the moving device.
• The position of the moving device causes a change in position of the
dielectric and this changes the capacitance. C
• Capacitance is inversely proportional to the motion and
• As long as the distances sensed are small, the output is linear.
Sensing by moving the dielectric
• (2) The plates remain fixed but the dielectric
moves in or out as in Figure b.
• Practical for some applications.
• For example, the dielectric may be connected to a float which
then senses the fluid level or
• It may be pushed by a device to sense end of travel or position.
• Advantages: linearity, range of motion is rather large and can
equal the width of the capacitor.
Sensing by moving the whole
capacitor
• (3) by keeping the plates fixed as in Figure c and
sensing the distance to a surface.
• This is a more practical arrangement since the
sensor is self contained and requires no mechanical
contact to sense distance or position.
• Most capacitive sensors are a variation of this
arrangement
Practical proximity sensors
• Typically, a hollow cylindrical conductor forms one
plate of the sensor as in Figure 5.7.
• The second plate of the sensor is a disk at the lower
opening of the cylinder.
• The whole structure may be enclosed with an outer
conducting shield or may be encased in a cylindrical
plastic enclosure. The capacitance of the device is
C0 based on dimensions, materials and structure.
Structure of a practical proximity
sensor
Proximity sensors - cont.
• When any material is present, effective permittivity
seen by the sensor and capacitances increases -
indicates distance
• Senses distances to conducting or nonconducting
bodies of any shape but output is not linear.
• the smaller the sensed distance d, the larger the
sensitivity of the sensor.
• dimensions of the sensor makes a big difference in span
and sensitivity.
• large diameter sensors will have a larger span while
small diameter sensor will have a shorter span.
Proximity sensors - cont.
• Other methods:
• Example: Two fixed plates and one moving plate.
• When the plate is midway, its potential is zero since
C1=C2.
• As the plate moves up, its potential becomes positive.
• When it moves down it is negative.
• More linear than the previous sensors
• Motion must be small or the capacitances will be very
small and difficult to measure.
Position sensor
Other position, displacement,
proximity sensors:
• Rotary (angular) position sensors
• Linear displacement sensors:
• Integrated comb-like sensors
• Sideways sliding plates
• Plunger type sensors
• Others
Rotary position sensor
Other configurations for linear
displacement sensors
Commercial capacitive sensors
 Variable Capacitance Transducers
• The Capacitance of a two plate capacitor is given by

kA A – Overlapping Area
C x – Gap width
x
k – Dielectric constant
k   0 r 0  Permitivity of vacuum r  Relative permitivity

• A change in any one of these parameters may be used for sensing

• Examples - Transverse displacement, rotation, and fluid level
• A capacitance bridge can be used to measure the change in the capacitance
• Other methods include measuring a change in charge
• Charge – charge amplifier
• Voltage – high impedance device in parallel
• Current – low impedance device in series
• Or inductance capacitance oscillator circuit
 Capacitive Rotation Sensor
• One plate rotates and the other is stationary
• Common area is proportional to the angle

C  K
• The relationship is linear and K is the sensor constant
• Sensitivity is
C
S K


Capacitance DC Output
Bridge vo

Fixed
Plate
Rotation A

θ
Rotating
Plate
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor
• One plate is attached to the moving object and the other is kept stationary
• Capacitance is and sensitivity is
K C K
C S  2
x x x
• This relationship is nonlinear but can be linearized by using an op amp circuit

vref Cref
vo  x
K
C = K/x
Capacitance
vo
Bridge Cref
A −
Supply + + +
Fixed Output
Voltage Op amp
Position Plate − vo
Moving Plate vref
x −
(e.g., Diaphragm)
Displacement Measurement
i R
+
Supply +
Output
Voltage
− vo
vref
−

d vref  vo K
i  Cvo   C
dt R x

vo 1

v ref 1  RKj x 

From magnitude From phase

RK
x x  RK tan 
2
1 M 1
 Capacitive Sensor Applications

• Mechanical loading effects are negligible

• Variations in dielectric properties due to humidity, temperature,
pressure, and impurities can cause errors
• Capacitance bridge can compensate for these effects
• Sensitivity – 1pF per mm
 Hall Effect Sensors
• Used to provide a Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed

noncontact means to
detect and measure a
magnetic field
• Named based on
their use of the Hall
Effect, discovered by
Edwin Hall in 1879

http://farm1.static.flickr.com/62/227729006_fab88c1668.jpg?
v=0
 How they work
• Presence of magnetic field deflects
electrons flowing through a Depiction of the Hall Effect
conductive material

• As electrons move to one end of a

conductive material, a potential is
developed in the direction
perpendicular to gross current
flow

• This potential indicates the

strength of the magnetic field http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/
Hall_effect_A.png
Hall Effect Sensors
• In the Hall effect sensor, the transport of electrons
through an electrical device is affected by the
presence of an external magnetic field.
• Current flowing from the top to the bottom of a
device is deflected to the right, causing a charge
build-up, and a measurable voltage.
 Applications
• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
• Used to determine position of cam shaft
• Brushless DC Motor Control
• Sensors determine position of permanent magnet rotor
• Assembly Lines
• Shaft position and velocity sensors
• Contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
• Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors
 Hall Effect Sensor Types
• Linear Hall Effect Sensors
• Output is proportional to magnetic field strength
• Hall Effect Digital Switches
• Presence of field above threshold turns switch on
• Presence of field below threshold turns switch off
• Hall Effect Digital Latches
• North field turns latch on
• South field turns latch off