IGCSE CHEMISTRY

SECTION 4 LESSON 1
 Content

The iGCSE
Section 1 Principles of Chemistry
Chemistry
Section 2 Chemistry of the Elements
course
Section 3 Organic Chemistry

Section 4 Physical Chemistry

Section 5 Chemistry in Society

 Content

Section 4
a) Acids, alkalis and salts
b) Energetics
Physical c) Rates of reaction
Chemistry d) Equilibria
 4.1 describe the use of the indicators litmus, phenolphthalein and
methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions
Lesson 1 4.2 understand how the pH scale, from 0–14, can be used to
classify solutions as strongly acidic, weakly acidic, neutral, weakly
alkaline or strongly alkaline
4.3 describe the use of universal indicator to measure the
a) Acids, approximate pH value of a solution
alkalis and 4.4 define acids as sources of hydrogen ions, H+, and alkalis as
sources of hydroxide ions, OH¯
salts 4.5 predict the products of reactions between dilute hydrochloric,
nitric and sulfuric acids; and metals, metal oxides and metal
carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and
metals)
4.6 understand the general rules for predicting the solubility of
salts in water:
i all common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble
ii all nitrates are soluble
iii common chlorides are soluble, except silver chloride
iv common sulfates are soluble, except those of barium and
calcium
v common carbonates are insoluble, except those of sodium,
potassium and ammonium
4.7 describe experiments to prepare soluble salts from acids
4.8 describe experiments to prepare insoluble salts using
precipitation reactions
 pH scale and indicators
The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is.
 pH scale and indicators
The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is.
 pH scale and indicators
The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is.

A substance forms an aqueous solution when it dissolves

in water. Water itself is neutral.

When substances dissolve in water, they dissociate into

individual ions.
pH scale and indicators
Water, H2O

H+(aq) OH-(aq)

hydrogen ion hydroxide ion

acid alkali
 pH scale and indicators
Indicators are special dyes that change colour
according to whether they are in acidic, alkaline
or neutral solutions.
 pH scale and indicators
Indicators are special dyes that change colour
according to whether they are in acidic, alkaline
or neutral solutions.

Three common indicators are:

Litmus

Phenolphthalein

Methyl Orange
pH scale and indicators
Litmus

5.0 8.0
 pH scale and indicators
Methyl Orange

4.4 6.2
 pH scale and indicators
Phenolphthalein

8.3 10
 pH scale and indicators
Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes, and
shows a complete colour range across the pH
scale.
Common acids and alkalis
ACIDS

Name Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3
 Common acids and alkalis
ACIDS

Name Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3
ALKALIS

Name Formula
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
 Salt formation
When acids and alkalis react together,
salts are formed.

The general equation is:

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

 Salt formation
When acids and alkalis react together,
salts are formed.

The general equation is:

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

This is known as a neutralisation reaction

because the products are neutral.
 Salt formation
Salts consist of two parts – a metal part,
and the non-metal ion from the acid.

Acid Ions in solution Salts formed

Hydrochloric
H+ Cl- chlorides
acid
Sulphuric acid 2H+ SO42- sulphates

Nitric acid H+ NO3- nitrates

 Salt formation
Examples of salts

Non-metal
Salt Formula Metal ion
ion
Copper
CuSO4 Cu2+ SO42-
sulphate
Sodium
NaCl Na+ Cl-
chloride
Potassium
KNO3 K+ NO3-
nitrate
Calcium
CaSO4 Ca2+ SO42-
sulphate
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metals

Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metals

Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen

Magnesium + Hydrochloric  Magnesium + Hydrogen

Acid chloride

Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metals

Have you got that?

Are you really
sure? Let’s try a
few examples.
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metals
Magnesium + Sulphuric Acid 

Iron + Hydrochloric Acid 

Lead + Sulphuric Acid 

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metals
Magnesium + Sulphuric Acid  Magnesium sulphate +
Hydrogen

Iron + Hydrochloric Acid  Iron chloride + Hydrogen

Lead + Sulphuric Acid  Lead sulphate + Hydrogen

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal oxides

Acid + Metal oxide  Salt + Water

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal oxides

Acid + Metal oxide  Salt + Water

Copper + Sulphuric  Copper + Water

oxide Acid sulphate

CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4+ H2O

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal oxides

Have you got that?

Are you really,
really sure? Let’s
try a few more
examples.
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal oxide
Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid 
oxide

Iron + Sulphuric Acid 

oxide

Lead + Hydrochloric Acid 

oxide
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal oxide
Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid  Magnesium + Water
oxide chloride

Iron + Sulphuric Acid  Iron sulphate + Water

oxide

Lead + Hydrochloric Acid  Lead chloride + Water

oxide
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal carbonate

Acid + Metal  Salt + Carbon + Water

carbonate dioxide
 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal carbonate

Acid + Metal  Salt + Carbon + Water

carbonate dioxide
Copper + Hydrochloric  Copper + Carbon + Water
Carbonate acid chloride dioxide

CuCO3 + 2HCl  CuCl2 + CO2 + H2O

 Reactions of salts
Acids + Metal carbonate

Guess what?
That’s right, no
more examples!
 Solubility of salts
If a substance is soluble, then this means that it
will dissolve in a solvent.
 Solubility of salts
If a substance is soluble, then this means that it
will dissolve in a solvent.

The most common solvent you will come across is

WATER.
 Solubility of salts
If a substance is soluble, then this means that it
will dissolve in a solvent.

The most common solvent you will come across is

WATER.

Solute (the solid) + Solvent (water)

 Solution (aqueous)
Solubility of salts

There’s no easy way

around this – you’ve
just got to learn the
relative solubility of
salts!
Solubility of salts
All ammonium,
potassium and
sodium salts are
soluble in water.
Solubility of salts
All ammonium,
potassium and
sodium salts are
soluble in water.

All nitrates are

soluble in water
Solubility of salts
All ammonium,
potassium and
sodium salts are
soluble in water.

Most chlorides All nitrates are

are soluble in soluble in water
water (except
lead and silver).
PbCl2 is soluble
in hot water.
 Solubility of salts
All ammonium,
potassium and
sodium salts are
soluble in water.

Most sulphates Most chlorides All nitrates are

are soluble in are soluble in soluble in water
water (except water (except
barium, calcium lead and silver).
and lead) PbCl2 is soluble
in hot water.
 Solubility of salts
Most carbonates All ammonium,
are insoluble in potassium and
water (except
sodium, potassium
sodium salts are
and ammonium) soluble in water.

Most sulphates Most chlorides All nitrates are

are soluble in are soluble in soluble in water
water (except water (except
barium, calcium lead and silver).
and lead) PbCl2 is soluble
in hot water.
 Preparing
insoluble salts
using
Preparing
precipitation
soluble salts
reactions
from acids

Carrying out
acid-alkali
titrations
 Preparing soluble salts from acids
Eg. the preparation of sodium chloride by neutralization
 Preparing soluble salts from acids
Eg. the preparation of sodium chloride by neutralization

Dilute Dilute
sodium hydrochloric
hydroxide acid
+ indicator
solution
 Preparing soluble salts from acids
Eg. the preparation of sodium chloride by neutralization

Filtrate

Decolourising
charcoal Evaporating
basin
 Preparing soluble salts from acids
Eg. the preparation of sodium chloride by neutralization
Crystals of
sodium
chloride Acid + Alkali 
forming) Salt + Water
Filtrate

Steam
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) 
Water bath
NaCl(aq) + Water(l)

Bunsen
burner
Preparing insoluble salts using
precipitation reactions
Eg. the preparation of lead iodide
 Preparing insoluble salts using
precipitation reactions
Eg. the preparation of lead iodide

Lead Potassium Yellow

nitrate iodide precipitate
of lead
iodide
Preparing insoluble salts using
precipitation reactions
Eg. the preparation of lead iodide

Filter to separate the

precipitate. Wash with
distilled water and dry to
get the pure product.

Lead
iodide
Preparing insoluble salts using
precipitation reactions
Eg. the preparation of lead iodide

Filter to separate the

precipitate. Wash with
distilled water and dry to
get the pure product.

Salt + Salt  Insoluble + Soluble

salt salt
Lead
Lead + Potassium  Lead + Potassium
iodide
nitrate iodide iodide nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Acid – Alkali Titrations

A titration is a
very accurate way
of adding an acid
to an alkali to get
a salt.
Acid – Alkali Titrations
To carry out an acid-alkali titration we
need the right bits of kit.

Conical
flask
Acid – Alkali Titrations
To carry out an acid-alkali titration we
need the right bits of kit.

Pipette
Acid – Alkali Titrations
To carry out an acid-alkali titration we
need the right bits of kit.

Burette
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 1
meniscus
Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution is sucked up into a pipette
using a pipette filler. The pipette
contains exactly 25.0cm3 of
solution when the bottom of the
meniscus is level with the pipette
mark. The sodium hydroxide
solution is then released in to the
conical flask.
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 1
meniscus
Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution is sucked up into a pipette
using a pipette filler. The pipette
contains exactly 25.0cm3 of
solution when the bottom of the
meniscus is level with the pipette
mark. The sodium hydroxide
solution is then released in to the
conical flask.
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 2

Two or three drops of an acid-

alkali indicator such as litmus
solution are added to the sodium
hydroxide solution using a teat
pipette. The alkali turns the
litmus blue.
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 3

The burette is filled with dilute

hydrochloric acid to the zero
reading. (Again, look for the
meniscus)
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 4

The conical flask is placed on a

white tile beneath the burette.
Acid is added from the burette
until the colour of the solution
turns from blue to red. The point
at which the colour changes is
called the end-point. At this
stage the conical flask only
contains salt and water.
 Acid – Alkali Titrations
Stage 4

The conical flask is placed on a

white tile beneath the burette.
Acid is added from the burette
until the colour of the solution
turns from blue to red. The point
at which the colour changes is
called the end-point. At this
stage the conical flask only
contains salt and water.

At the end-point the volume of

acid added can be measured by
reading off the volume used in the
burette – this is the titre
 Preparing
insoluble salts
using
Preparing
precipitation
soluble salts
reactions
from acids

Carrying out
acid-alkali
titrations
 Preparing
insoluble salts
using
Preparing
precipitation
soluble salts
reactions
from acids

Carrying out
acid-alkali
titrations
 Preparing
insoluble salts
using
Preparing
precipitation
soluble salts
reactions
from acids

Carrying out
acid-alkali
titrations
 End of Section 4 Lesson 1

In this lesson we have covered:

pH scale and indicators

Common acids and alkalis

Salt formation and reactions

Preparing salts