Faculty of Computing and Informatics

Department of Computer Science

Operating Systems
OPS621S

2020 - Semester 2
Event Specific Picture –
Chapter 4
behind red graphic
Processor Management
 Learning Objectives
 After completing the chapter, you should be able to describe:
 How job scheduling and process scheduling compare
 How several process scheduling algorithms work
 How jobs go through various states during execution
 How the process scheduling policies can be implemented
 How the interrupt handler manages pauses in processing
 Outline
 Overview
 Scheduling sub-managers
– Job Scheduler
– Process Scheduler
 Process States
 Process Control Block
 Process Scheduling Policies:
– Two types: => Preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling
 Process Scheduling Algorithms
– First-Come First-Served
– Shortest Job Next
– Priority Scheduling
– Shortest Remaining Time
– Round Robin
– Multiple-Level Queues
– Earliest Deadline First
 Interrupts
 Overview/Definitions (1 of 3)
 Program (job)
– Inactive unit. E.g. File stored on a disk
– A unit of work submitted by a user (not a process)
 Process (task)
– A program in execution
– Active entity
• Requires resources to perform function. E.g. Processor, special registers, etc.
to perform a function.
 Process management
- keeping track of processes and the states they are in.
 Thread
– Portion of a process
– Runs independently
 Processor (CPU)
– Performs calculations and executes programs.
 Overview/Definitions (2 of 3)
 Multiprogramming environment
– Multiple processes competing to be run by a single processor
(CPU).
– Requires fair and efficient CPU allocation for each job
 Multitasking
– One user running many programs
– Still, resources must be shared by several programs
 Interrupt
– Call for help
– Activates higher-priority program
 Context Switch
– Saving job processing information when interrupted
 Overview/Definitions (3 of 3)
 In this chapter, we will see how a Processor Manager
manages a system with a single CPU (examining
single-central processing unit CPU systems).

 The same concepts are used in multi-CPU systems,

with a higher-level scheduler that coordinates each
CPU.

 Systems with multiple processors and multi-core

systems are not explored in this chapter.
 About Multi-Core Technologies
 Dual-core, quad-core, or other multi-core
C PU
– More than one processor (core): located on
computer chip
 Single chip may contain multiple cores
– Multi-core engineering
• Resolves leakage and heat problems
• Multiple calculations may occur simultaneously
• More complex Processor Manager handling: not
discussed in this chapter.
 Scheduling Sub-managers
 Processor Manager:
– Made up of two sub-managers
 Job Scheduler: higher-level scheduler
– Job scheduling responsibilities
– Job initiation based on certain criteria
 Process Scheduler: lower-level scheduler
– Process scheduling responsibilities
– Determines execution steps
– Process scheduling based on certain criteria
 Job Scheduling
 Job Scheduler functions:
– Selects incoming job from queue
– Places the job in process queue
– Decides on job initiation criteria
 Goal:
– Sequence jobs
• Efficient system resource utilization
– Balance I/O interaction and computation
– Keep most system components busy most of
time
 Process Scheduling (1 of 2)
 Process Scheduler functions:
– Determines which job to get CPU resource(s)
• When and how long
– Decides interrupt processing
– Determines queues for process movement
during execution
– Recognizes process conclusion / termination.
 Process Scheduling (2 of 2)
 Make use of common computer program traits
– Programs alternate between two cycles
• CPU and I/O cycles
• Frequency and CPU cycle duration vary
 General tendencies exists:
– I/O-bound job
• Performs lots of I/O operations
• Many brief CPU cycles and long I/O cycles (printing
documents)
– CPU-bound job
• Performs lots of computation and do little O/I
• Many long CPU cycles and shorter I/O cycles (math
calculation)
 Process States

 Many processes may be in the New, Ready state, Waiting state

and Terminated state
 Only one process can be in the Running state, actually running at
any one time.
 Process States

(figure 4.3)
A typical job (or process) changes status as it moves through the system from
HOLD to FINISHED.
© Cengage Learning 2018
 Process States (1 of 3)
 User submits job:
– Job accepted
• Put on HOLD and placed in queue
– Job state changes from HOLD to READY
• Indicates job waiting for CPU
– Job state changes from READY to RUNNING
• When selected for CPU and processing
– Job state changes from RUNNING to WAITING
• Requires unavailable resources: moves back to READY status
– Job state changes to FINISHED
• Job completed (successfully or unsuccessfully)
 Process States (2 of 3)
 Job Scheduler or Process Scheduler incurs state
transition responsibility:
– HOLD to READY
• Job Scheduler initiates using predefined policy
– READY to RUNNING
• Process Scheduler initiates using predefined algorithm
– RUNNING back to READY
• Process Scheduler initiates according to predefined time limit
or other criterion
– RUNNING to WAITING
• Process Scheduler initiates by instruction in job
 Process States (3 of 3)
 Job Scheduler or Process Scheduler incurs
state transition responsibility (continued):
– WAITING to READY
• Process Scheduler initiates by signal from I/O
device manager
• Signal indicates I/O request satisfied; job continues
– RUNNING to FINISHED
• Process Scheduler or Job Scheduler initiates upon
job completion
• Satisfactorily or with error
 Process Control Block (PCB)
 The operating system must manage a large amount
of data for each active process in the system.

 Usually that data is stored in RAM in a data

structure called a process control block (PCB)
 The OS maintains one PCB for each process
 Process Control Block Attributes
 Process ID (unique)
 Processor status information (indicates the current
state of the job. E.g. HOLD, READY, RUNNING, WAITING)
 Processor state information (contains all
information needed to indicate the current state of the
job. E.g. Process Status Word, register contents, main
memory info, process priority, resources)
 Accounting (contains information used for billing
purposes and performance measurement, as well as what
kind of resources the job used & for how long. E.g. CPU
time, I/O operations)
 Control Blocks and Queuing (1 of 2)
 Job PCB
– Created when Job Scheduler accepts job
– Updated as job executes
– Queues use PCBs to track jobs
– Contains all necessary job management processing data
– PCBs linked to form queues (jobs not linked)
 PCBs requires orderly management of queues
– Determined by process scheduling policies and
algorithms
 Control Blocks and Queuing (2 of 2)
 Queues:
– Queues use control blocks to track jobs the same way
customs officials review passports to track international
visitors.
– These control blocks contain all of the data needed by
the operating system to manage the processing of the
job.
– As the job move through the system, its progress is
noted in the control block. In this way, the data in the
PCB make it possible fro interrupted processes to be
resumed after a delay.
 PCB and Queuing
Queues use PCBs to track jobs

(figure 4.6)
Queuing paths from HOLD to FINISHED. The Job and Processor Schedulers
release the resources when the job leaves the RUNNING state.
© Cengage Learning 2018
 CPU Context Switch
 There is only one CPU and therefore only one set of CPU
registers
– These registers contain the values for the currently
executing process

 Each time a process is moved to the running state:

– Register values for the currently running process
are stored into its PCB
– Register values of the new running state are loaded
into the CPU
– This exchange of information is called a context switch
 Process Scheduling Policies
 Multiprogramming environment
– More jobs than resources at any given time
 Operating system pre-scheduling task
– Resolve three system limitations:
• Finite number of resources (disk drives, printers,
tape drives, memory, etc.)
• Some resources cannot be shared once allocated
(printers)
• Some resources require operator intervention before
reassigning (tape drives)
 “Some” definitions
 CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible
 Turnaround time – the amount of time when process
arrives in the ready state the first time and when it
exits the running state for the last time.
 Throughput – the number of processes that complete
their execution per time unit
 Waiting time – amount of time a process has been
waiting in the ready queue
 Response time – amount of time it takes from when a
request was submitted until the first response is
produced, not output (for time-sharing environment)
 Process Scheduling Policies (1 of 4)
 Good process scheduling policy criteria:
– Maximize throughput
• Run as many jobs as possible in given amount of time
• Minimize overhead (context switch time) as well as efficient
use of resources (CPU, disk, memory, etc.)
– Minimize response time
• Elapsed time to do an operation (job)
• Response time is what the user sees
• Time to echo keystroke in editor
• Time to compile a program
• Quickly turn around interactive requests
– Minimize turnaround time
• amount of time to execute a particular process
• Move entire job in and out of system quickly
 Process Scheduling Policies (2 of 4)
 Good process scheduling policy criteria (cont.):
– Minimize waiting time
• Amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready
queue
• Move job out of READY queue quickly
– Maximize CPU efficiency
• Keep CPU busy 100 % of time
– Ensure fairness for all jobs
• Give every job equal CPU and I/O time
 Final policy criteria decision lies with system
designer or administrator’s hands!
 Process Scheduling Policies (3 of 4)
 Problem
– Job claims CPU for very long time before I/O
request issued
• Builds up READY queue and empties I/O queues
• Creates unacceptable system imbalance
 Corrective measure
– Interrupt
• Used by Process Scheduler upon predetermined
expiration of time slice
• Current job activity suspended
• Reschedules job into READY queue
 Process Scheduling Policies (4 of 4)
 Two types of scheduling policies:
 Non-preemptive scheduling The currently executing
process gives up the CPU voluntarily
– Once CPU has been allocated to a process, the process keeps the
CPU until
• Process exits OR
• Process switches to waiting state
 Preemptive scheduling The operating system decides to
favor another process, preempting the currently executing
process. (Interruption).
– Transfers CPU to another job
– Used in time-sharing environments
 Process Scheduling Algorithms
 Six algorithm types:
– First-come, first-served (FCFS)
– Shortest job next (SJN)
– Priority scheduling
– Shortest remaining time (SRT)
– Round robin
– Multiple-level queues
– Earliest deadline first (EDF)
 Depending on a specific policy => allocates CPU and
moves job through the system.
 Current / most systems emphasize fast user response time.
 First Come First Served (FCFS)
 Non-preemptive
 Job handled based on arrival time
– Earlier job arrives, earlier served
 Simple algorithm implementation
– Uses first-in, first-out (FIFO) queue
 Good for batch systems
 Unacceptable in interactive systems
– Unpredictable turnaround time
 Disadvantages
– Average turnaround time varies seldom minimized
First Come First Served (FCFS)

What is the average

turn- around time?

(140+215+535+815+940)/5 = 529
 First Come First Served (FCFS)

(figure 4.7)
Timeline for job sequence A, B, C using the F CFS algorithm.
© Cengage Learning 2018
Note: Average turnaround time: 16.67

(figure 4.8)
Timeline for job sequence C, B, A using the F CFS algorithm.
© Cengage Learning 2018
Note: Average turnaround time: 7.3
 Shortest Job Next (SJN)
 Non-preemptive
 Also known as shortest job first (SJF)
 Job handled based on length of CPU cycle time
 Easy implementation in batch environment
– CPU time requirement known in advance
 Does not work well in interactive systems
 Optimal algorithm
– All jobs are available at same time
– CPU estimates available and accurate
Shortest Job Next (SJN)

What is the average

turn-around time?

(75+200+340+620+940)/5 = 435
 Priority Scheduling (1 of 4)
 Non-preemptive
o Sometimes it can be preemtive
 Preferential treatment for important jobs
– Highest priority programs processed first
– No interrupts until CPU cycles completed or natural
wait occurs
 READY queue may contain two or more jobs with
equal priority
– Uses FCFS policy within priority
 System administrator or Processor Manager use
different methods of assigning priorities
 Priority Scheduling (2 of 4)
 Processor Manager priority assignment
methods:
– Memory requirements
• Jobs requiring large amounts of memory
• Allocated lower priorities (vice versa)
– Number and type of peripheral devices
• Jobs requiring many peripheral devices
• Allocated lower priorities (vice versa)
 Priority Scheduling (3 of 4)
 Processor Manager priority assignment
methods (cont.)
– Total CPU time
• Jobs having a long CPU cycle
• Given lower priorities (vice versa)
– Amount of time already spent in the system
(aging)
• Total time elapsed since job accepted for processing
• Increase priority if job in system unusually long time
Priority Scheduling (4 of 4)
Example:
 Shortest Remaining Time (SRT)
 Preemptive version of SJN
 Processor allocated to job closest to completion
– Preemptive if newer job has shorter completion time
 Often used in batch environments
– Short jobs given priority
 Cannot implement in interactive system
– Requires advance CPU time knowledge
 Involves more overhead than SJN
– System monitors CPU time for READY queue jobs
– Performs context switching
 Shortest Remaining Time (SRT)

(figure 4.10)
Arrival Time 0 1 2 3
Timeline for job sequence A, B, C, D using the
Job A B C D preemptive S R T algorithm. Each job is interrupted
after one C P U cycle if another job is waiting with
CPU Cycle 6 3 1 4 less C P U time remaining. © Cengage Learning 2018
 Round Robin (1 of 5)
 Preemptive
 Distributes the processing time equitably among all ready
processes
 The algorithm establishes a particular time slice (quantum),
which is the amount of time each process receives before
being preempted and returned to the ready state to allow
another process its turn
 Time quantum size:
– Crucial to system performance
– Varies from 100 ms to 1-2 seconds
 CPU equally shared among all active processes
– Not monopolized by one job
 Used extensively in interactive systems
 Round Robin (2 of 5)
Suppose the time slice is 50

What is the average

turn-around time?

(515+325+940+920+640)/5 = 668
 Round Robin (3 of 5)
Suppose the time quantum is 4
Arrival Time 0 1 2 3

Job A B C D

CPU Cycle 8 4 9 5

(figure 4.12)
Timeline for job sequence A, B, C, D using the preemptive round robin
algorithm with time slices of 4 ms.
© Cengage Learning 2018
 Round Robin (4 of 5)
 Efficiency
– Depends on time quantum size
• In relation to average CPU cycle
 Quantum too large (larger than most CPU cycles)
– Response time suffers
– Algorithm reduces to FCFS scheme
 Quantum too small
– Throughput suffers
– Context switching occurs
• Job execution slows down
• Overhead dramatically increased
 Information saved in PCB
 Round Robin (5 of 5)
 Best quantum time size:
– Depends on system
• Interactive: response time key factor
• Batch: turnaround time key factor
– General rules of thumb
• Long enough to allow 80% of CPU cycles to run to
completion
• At least 100 times longer than the time required to
preform one context switch.
 Process Scheduling Algorithms
Are they preemptive or non-preemptive?
Explain.
 First-Come, First-Served?
 Priority?
 Shortest Job Next?
 Shortest Remaining Time?
 Round Robin?
 Earliest Deadline First?
 Multiple-Level Queues (1 of 3)
 A class of scheduling algorithms that categorise processes
by some characteristic and can be used in conjunction with
other policies or schemes.
– Processes can be categorised by: memory size, process type, their
response time, their externally assigned priorities, etc.
 A multilevel queue-scheduling algorithm divides the ready
queue into several separate queues to which processes are
assigned.
– Each queue is associated with one particular scheduling algorithm
 Examples:
– Interactive processes: Round Robin
– Background processes: FCFS and SRT
 Multiple-Level Queues (2 of 3)
 Works in conjunction with several other schemes
 Works well in systems with jobs grouped by common
characteristic
– Priority-based
• Different queues for each priority level
– CPU-bound jobs in one queue and I/O-bound jobs in another
queue
– Hybrid environment
• Batch jobs in background queue
• Interactive jobs in foreground queue
 Scheduling policy based on predetermined scheme
 Four primary methods of moving jobs
 Multiple-Level Queues (3 of 3)
 Four primary methods of moving jobs:
– Case 1: No Movement Between Queues
– Case 2: Movement Between Queues
– Case 3: Variable Time Quantum Per Queue
– Case 4: Aging

Find out about these cases from the text book

(page 126-128, 8th ver.) on your own ...
 Case 1: No Movement Between Queues
 Simple
 Rewards high-priority jobs
– Processor allocated using FCFS
 Processor allocated to lower-priority jobs
– Only when high-priority queues empty
 Good environment
– Few high-priority jobs
– Spend more time with low-priority jobs
 Case 2: Movement Between Queues
 Processor adjusts priorities assigned to each job
 High-priority jobs
– Initial priority favorable
• Treated like all other jobs afterwards
 Quantum interrupt
– Job preempted
• Moved to next lower queue
• May have priority increased
 Good environment
– Jobs handled by cycle characteristics (CPU or I/O)
– Interactive systems
 Case 3: Variable Time Quantum Per Queue
 Case 2 variation: movement between queues
 Each queue given time quantum size
– Size twice as long as previous queue
 Fast turnaround for CPU-bound jobs
 CPU-bound jobs execute longer and given
longer time periods
– Improves chance of finishing faster
 Case 4: Aging
 Ensures lower-level queue jobs eventually
complete execution
 System keeps track of job wait time
 If too “old”:
– System moves job to next highest queue
– Continues until old job reaches top queue
– May drastically move old job to highest queue
 Advantage
– Guards against indefinite postponement
• Major problem: discussed further in Chapter 5
 Earliest Deadline First (EDF) (1 of 3)
 Dynamic priority algorithm
 Preemptive
 Addresses critical processing requirements of
real-time systems: deadlines
 Job priorities can be adjusted while moving
through the system
 Primary goal:
– Process all jobs in order most likely to allow each
to run to completion before reaching their
respective deadlines.
 Earliest Deadline First (EDF) (2 of 3)
 Initial job priority: inversely proportional to its
absolute deadline
– Jobs with same deadlines: another scheme applied
 Priority can change as more important jobs enter
the system
 Problems
– Missed deadlines: total time required for all jobs
greater than allocated time until final deadline
– Impossible to predict job throughput: changing priority
nature
– High overhead: continual evaluation of deadlines
Earliest Deadline First (EDF) (3 of 3)
EDF dynamic
priority timeline for
six jobs showing
progressing order and
deadlines, which
where met by jobs A,
B, D, E. Job C, F
failed to finish before
their deadlines.
 Managing Interrupts (1 of 2)
 Interrupt Types
– Page interrupt (memory manager)
• Accommodate job requests
– Time quantum expiration interrupt
– I/O interrupt
• Result from READ or WRITE command issuance
– Internal interrupt
• Synchronous
• Result from arithmetic operation or job instruction
– Illegal arithmetic operation interrupt
• Dividing by zero; bad floating-point operation.
 Managing Interrupts (2 of 2)
 Interrupt Types (cont.):
– Illegal job instruction interrupt
• Protected storage or non-existent access attempt
• Attempts to use an undefined operation code, operating on invalid
data, etc.
 Interrupt handler
– Control program that handles the interruption event
sequence. When the OS detects a non-recoverable error,
the interrupt hander follows this sequence:
• Type of interrupt is described and stored to be passed on to the
user as an error message
• State of the interrupt process is saved
• The interrupt is processed
• Processor resumes normal operation.
 Conclusion (1 of 2)
Comparison of the Scheduling Algorithms
Algorithm Policy Advantages Disadvantages
Type
First Come, First Nonpreem Easy to implement Unpredictable turnaround
Served (FCFS) ptive times; has an element of
chance
Shortest Job Next Nonpreem Minimizes average Indefinite postponement
(SJN) ptive waiting time of some jobs; requires
execution times in
advance
Priority Nonpreem Ensures fast Indefinite postponement
Scheduling ptive completion of of some jobs
important jobs
Shortest Preemptive Ensures fast Overhead incurred by
Remaining Time completion of short context switching
(SRT) jobs
 Conclusion (2 of 2)
Comparison of the Scheduling Algorithms (cont.)
Algorithm Policy Type Advantages Disadvantages
Round Preemptive Provides reasonable Requires
Robin response times to selection of good
interactive users; provides time quantum
fair CPU allocation
Multiple- Preemptive/ Flexible scheme; allows Overhead
Level Non- aging or other queue incurred by
Queues preemptive movement to counteract monitoring
indefinite postponement; queues
fair to CPU-bound jobs
Earliest Preemptive Attempts timely completion Overhead
Deadline of jobs required to
First (EDF) monitor dynamic
deadlines
 Homework

Read chapter 4 in the textbook!!

End