Chapter 1

Introduction

Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach ,
5th edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley, April
2009.

The lecture notes are based on the lecture notes

provided by Jim Kurose and Keith Ross with some
modifications. Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal: Overview:
 get “feel” and  what’s the Internet?
terminology
 what’s a protocol?
 more depth, detail
later in course  network edge; hosts, access
 approach: net, physical media
 use Internet as  network core: packet/circuit
example switching, Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay
 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
PC  millions of connected Mobile network
server computing devices: Global ISP
wireless hosts = end systems
laptop
 running network
cellular
handheld apps Home network
Regional ISP
 communication links
access  fiber, copper,
points
wired
radio, satellite Institutional network
links  transmission
rate = bandwidth
 routers: forward
router
packets (chunks of
data)
Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
Mobile network
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs Global ISP
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
Ethernet
Home network
 Internet: “network of
networks” Regional ISP
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus Institutional network
private intranet

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, file sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 reliable data delivery
from source to
destination
 “best effort” (unreliable)
data delivery

Introduction 1-5
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions protocols define format,
taken when msgs order of msgs sent and
received, or other received among network
events entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction 1-7
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 access networks,
physical media: wired,
wireless communication
links
 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks

Introduction 1-8
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network” peer-peer
 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
client/server
 e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent
Introduction 1-9
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-10
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-11
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  time division
 resource pieceidle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-12
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-13
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Work it out!
0.5s + 640,000bits/(1.536Mbps/24) =
0.5s + 640,000bits/64kbps =
0.5s + 10s = 10.5s
Introduction 1-14
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream
divided into packets
 user A, B packets share
network resources
 each packet uses full link
bandwidth
 resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
 aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
 congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
 store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
 Node receives complete
packet before forwarding
Introduction 1-15
 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-16
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
 transmission delay = 15
 store and forward:
sec
entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link
 delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-17
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when “active”
 active 10% of time

N users
 circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
 10 users
 packet switching:
 with 35 users,
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than .0004
Introduction 1-18
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps

Introduction 1-19
Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet
Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….
which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai )
may run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “ tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects it
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction 1-28
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-29
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:
 check bit errors
 determine output link
 2. queueing
 time waiting at output
link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-30
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-31
 Caravan analogy (Difference between
transmission/propagation delay)

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll booth
 toll booth takes 12 sec to onto highway = 12*10 = 120
service car (transmission sec
time)  Time for a car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to 2nd
 Q: How long until caravan is toll both:
lined up before 2nd toll 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
booth?  A: 62 minutes

Introduction 1-32
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at at 2nd booth and 3 cars
1000 km/hr still at 1st booth.
 Toll booth now takes 1  1st bit of packet can
min to service a car arrive at 2nd router
 Q: Will cars arrive to before packet is fully
2nd booth before all transmitted at 1st router!
cars serviced at 1st
booth?

Introduction 1-33
Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = nodal processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-34
Queueing delay (revisited)

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-35
 Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
Introduction 1-36
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
network?
media
 applications
Or at least our discussion of
 protocols networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-37
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-38
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-39
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system

Introduction 1-40
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
application
 transport: process-process data
transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from network
source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements physical
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-41
 source
message M application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-42
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material!
You now have:
 Internet overview
 context, overview,
 what’s a protocol?
“feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models

Introduction 1-43