Social Research

Methods
Research
 R –rational way of thinking
 E-stands for expert and exhaustive treatment
 S-search for solutions
 E-exactness
 A-analytical analysis of adequate data
 R-relation between facts and theories
 C-constructive attitude ,critical observation, condensed and
compactly stated generalisation ,cautious and careful recording
 H-honesty and hard work
Research
 Word derived from French word “recerch ”-to search or seek again
 Search for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge
 “careful critical inquiry or examination seeking facts or principles diligent investigation
in order to ascertain something”-Webster’s international dictionary
 “Social research can be defined as the systematic method of discovering new facts or
verifying old facts, their sequence , interrelationships , causal explanations and natural
law which govern them”-P.V.Young
 “Research is a more systematic activity directed towards discovery and the
development of an organised body of knowlege”-John Best
Research Methodology
 Method is the way of doing something and methodology is a science or
philosophy of that method.
 Research Methodology may be a standard, process or way of doing
research. In its wider sense methodology includes philosophy,
investigation, description or scientific approach to gain new knowledge.
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It is science of studying how research is done scientifically.
Characteristics
 Creative process-investigation or inquiry, discovery or invention or experimentation to find
out the truth with evidence
 Direct method to solution of a problem
 Find out the relationship between two or more variables or variabilities
 Characterised by carefully designated procedure
 Used to predict future occurrences
 Logical and objective
 Based on hypothesis and insight
 Enables man to understand , explain control and cope up with any situation..
Objectives of research
 Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols
 Purpose of generalisations
 To extend correct or verify knowledge
 The knowledge used for construction of a theory
 Forms the basis for government policies
 helps in solving social problems
 Useful to students , professionals ,philosophers ,literary
men , analysts and intellectuals
Qualities of a good research
 Good research must be systematic
 Must be logical
 Must be empirical
 Must be one whose results can be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions
 Common concepts must be followed
 Procedure followed in research work must be described in detail
 Research procedure should be so designed that objective of research can be
achieved
Qualities of good researcher
 Scientific mind and unbiased attitude-not influenced by superficial
facts
 Seeker of truth and knowledge
 Alertness , insight and imagination-mind to work under any
circumstances and should be accurate in observation .
 Quick power of understanding and ability for explaining .
 Knowledge of the subject and possess intimate knowledge of the
technique that is to be applied to the problem
 Personal interest in the study
 Legal Research Methodology
 Legal Research Methodology may be applicable for interpretation or analysis of codes;

Acts, Rules etc. or to compare laws of different countries, or to compare more than two municipal laws of the
nation, to know the consequences of implementation of law, or effects of that law on the society.

 The methodology of legal studies involve their own rules. Thus separate study of legal methodology is
required.
 The legal research basically involves two sources : 1. Legal Sources 2. Non Legal Sources
 1) Legal Sources : a) Primary authority of law – Primary authority constitutes the law. Bodies like the Judiciary,
the Legislature, and administrative agencies.

E.g: Cases, Statutes, Regulations, Codes etc. declared by primary authorities are the legal source.
Legal research methodology
 b) Secondary authority of law – Commentary of Non-Governmental bodies comes under this category. Reports, Journals, Legal Treaties,
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries etc.
 2) Non Legal Sources – To get supporting information legal researcher takes help from non legal source such as life style of people, memories,
experiences etc.
 The main methods which legal research scholar tries to follow are : (i) Study the system of values: First, researcher should study the values of
society from which the law is derived. For example to understand the object of Dowry Prohibitions Act, you have to know the values of Indian
society and family.
 (ii) Study the practice of law: Practical applicability is important in law. To know, does the practice follow the principles of law? Researcher can
study the practice of law by analyzing the law.
 (iii) Study the normative character : To study the legal discourse, scholars should learn the enactment, statute etc. For example, the Indian Penal
Code, Civil Procedure Code.
 (iv) Study the procedural validity: Scholar can study the procedure followed by the legislature and also validity of procedure, given under the
particular Act. For example study of procedure of declaration of emergency.
 (v) Compare the international and municipal law: International law provides or recommends minimum standard for municipal laws. By comparing
both the laws, researcher can suggest the changes in municipal laws.
 (vi) Legal impact analysis: To record and explain how a particular law works within a particular society, Legal Impact Analysis is the best
procedure. This method is useful in study of law in action.
 This method is also effective to examine the effect of law on the people or society. Before the commencement of the new statutes or by introducing
new laws we can change the old law by analyzing impact of old laws on people
Types of research- broadly classified as
 i)fundamental (basic or Pure research ) and
Applied research
 Ii) Descriptive research and Analytical research
 Ii) Quantitative research and Qualitative research
 Iii) Conceptual or Empirical research
Types of research
 Fundamental research
 aims in achievement of knowledge.
 Generalisations
 Add to already existing knowledge
 Applied research
 concerned with the solution of particular problem
 Applied in real life situations
Descriptive Vs Analytical
 Descriptive research
 includes survey and fact finding enquires
 main purpose is description of state of affairs as it exists
at present .
 Analytical Research
 one has to use facts or information already available and
analyse these to make a critical evaluation of material
Quantitative and Qualitative
 Quantitative
 applicable to phenomena that are measurable
 Expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research
 concerned with qualitative phenomenon
 Aims to discover underlying motives of human behavior
Conceptual Vs Empirical
 Conceptual
 is that related to abstract ideas or theories generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research
 relies on experience or observation based on data
coming up with conclusions capable of being
verified by observations or experiments
Research types
 Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example,
 why stressful living results in heart attacks;
 why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline;
 or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement
 Exploratory research.-is conducted when a study is undertaken with the objective either to
explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study.
 When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a
pilot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he
has little or no knowledge.
 A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation.
On the basis of the assessment made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate.
Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and
procedures.
Definitions
 Social theory A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes the
knowledge about the social world and explains how it works..
 Empirical refers to evidence or observations grounded in human sensory
experience or Description of what we can observe and experience directly through
human senses (e.g., touch, sight, hearing, smell, taste) or indirectly using
techniques that extend the senses ie Scientific researchers cannot use their senses
to observe directly some aspects of the world but they have created specialized
instruments and techniques to observe and measure such aspects indirectly.
 Data Numerical (quantitative) and non-numerical (qualitative) information and
evidence that have been carefully gathered according to rules or established
procedures
methods of acquiring knowledge, there are two basic
approaches
 1 empiricism – knowledge gained by sensory experience (using inductive
reasoning);
 2 rationalism – knowledge gained by reasoning (using deductive reasoning)
 INDUCTIVE REASONING – THE EMPIRICIST’S APPROACH
 Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations or sensory experiences and
then develops a general conclusion from them.
 in our normal lives as we learn from our surroundings and experiences. We come
to conclusions from what we have experienced and then generalize from them,
that is, set them up as a rule or belief.
 In order to be able to rely on the conclusions by using inductive reasoning,
should ensure that we make a large number of observations, we repeat them under
a large range of circumstances and conditions and that no observations contradict
the generalization we have made from the repeated observations.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING – THE RATIONALIST’S APPROACH

 Deductive reasoning begins with general statements (premises) and, through

logical argument, comes to a specific conclusion.
 Eg: All living thing) will eventually die. (General statement – first premise)
 This animal is a living thing. (Inference – second premise)
 Therefore, this animal will eventually die((Conclusion)
 Problem with deductive reasoning is that the truth of the conclusions depends
very much on the truth of the premise on which it is based.
 For example, in the past many conclusions about the movement of the planets
were incorrect due to the premise that the earth was the centre of the universe.
Positivism and relativism
 The positivist approach to scientific investigation is based on acceptance as fact
that the world around us is real, and that we can find out about these realities.
There is an order made up of atomistic, discrete and observable events.
Knowledge is derived using scientific method and based on sensory experience
gained through experiments or comparative analysis. It aims at developing a
unique and elegant description of any chosen aspect of the world that is true
regardless of what people think.
 Relativism – is based on the philosophical doctrines of idealism and humanism. It
maintains that the view of the world that we see around us is the creation of the
mind. This does not mean that the world is not real, but rather that we can only
experience it personally through our perceptions which are influenced by our
preconceptions, beliefs and values; we are not neutral, disembodied observers but
part of society
Comparison between positivist and
relativist approaches
 Positivist - Philosophical basis- Realism(the world exists and is knowable as it really is)
 Relativist -Philosophical basis- Idealism(the world exists but different people construe it in very
different ways).
 Positivist- The role of research -To discover universal laws and generalizations.
 Relativist –Role of research - To reveal different interpretations of the world as made by people.
 Positivist Theoretical approach Rational, using inductive and scientific methods and value free
data.
 Relativist – Theoretical approach - Subjective, using inductive methods and value laden data.
 Positivist - Methods - Experiments or mathematical models and quantitative analysis to validate,
reject or refine hypotheses.
 Relativist - Methods- Surveys and observations with qualitative analysis to seek meaningful
relationships and the consequences of their interactions. Analysis of language and meaning.
Problems faced by researchers
 1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
 2. insufficient interaction between the university research departments and business
establishments, government departments and research institutions .
 3.The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business organisations in the
country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers.
 4. Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various
disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries.
 5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
 6. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country
The answers to four important questions underpin the framework of any
research project

 What are you going to do? The subject of your research.

 Why are you going to do it? The reason for this research being necessary or
interesting.
 How are you going to do it? The research methods that you will use to carry out
the project.
 When are you going to do it? The programme of the work.
On the basis of methods of investigations

 Experimental research-eg Researches in physics is experimental

 Expost facto research –analytical and scientific examination of the relationship
between independent and depend variables . Independent variable exists already
and their relationship with dependent variable is established in this type of
research .
 Action research
 Library research –researcher depends on the material which can be collected from
library sources and secondary data.
 Evaluation research –for evaluating a project which has already been
implemented or a work that has already being carried out.
Non doctrinal or empirical research
 Researcher attempts to investigate effect or impact by actual examination or
observation of the functioning of law and legal institutions in society .
 Lays a different and lesser emphasis upon doctrine
 Seeks to answer broader and more numerous questions
 Gaining recognition in certain areas such as criminology, juvenile offenses ,
labour law , corporate laws etc
 Useful when proof is sought that certain variables affect the other variables in
certain way.
 Field work most important part
 More important given to society-concerned with social values and social
institutions
Motivating factors for research

 Curiosity about unknown

 Desire to understand the cause and effect of widespread social problems
 Appearance of novel and unanticipated situation
 Desire to discover new scientific procedure
Systematic process and steps of research

 Statement of problem
 Review of concepts and theories and presentation of observation with a reference
of previous study
 Formulation of hypothesis
 Design the course and methods of research
 Data collection
 Data analysis and testing of hypothesis
 Interpretation of data and generalization and conclusion
 Preparation of report and its submission
before the 10th plan of ugc synopsis of
research plan has the following
 1.The problem to be investigated
 2.objectives of the study
 3.Hypothesis
 4.Research design and methodology
 5.Tools to be used in collection of data
 6.significance of study
 7.its relevance to present day problem and needs of the society and country
 8.its contribution to knowledge
In 10th plan ugc revised the requirement as
follows
 1.project title
 2.Introduction
 Origin of research problem
 Review of literature and development in the subject
-International status
-National status
-Significance of study
3.Objectives
4.Methodology
5.Year wise plan of work and targets to achieve
6.Details of collaboration , if any intended
Format of ICSSR for preparing a Research proposal for
Research project

 1.Title:concise (with sub title )reflecting the scope of investigation

 2.Aim of the project –broad aim of the project emphasizing the overall thrust of the
proposed investigation should be clearly mentioned
 3. Statement of problem-the problem to be investigated should be clearly
conceptualized in theoretical framework of the discipline
 4.Overview of literature-problem identified should be logically linked to other studies
on the theme of the literature delineating the need for the present investigation
 5.Conceptual framework-The concepts to be used their relevance and applicability to
the study and their operationalization should be indicated.
 6.Research questions or Hypothesis –research questions answered to be clearly stated
 7.Research Methodology
a)coverage-proposal should clearly indicate the universe of the
study , sampling frame, sampling methods , sampling size , units of
observation etc.
b)Data collection –should indicate sources of data, types of data
and techniques for data collection of various categories of
proposed data
c) Data analysis –it should indicate the statistical techniques if any for
proposed data
8.References –should include the list of references along with important additions to the
literature on the theme . The references should indicate the author, title ,publisher and year
of publication.
Techniques used in research
 Content analysis
 IT is a research technique that help to analyze the actual content and it is the
features of any kind, whether it was a word, picture , themes , text or to present
the content in objective and quantitative manner used to determine the presence
of certain words concepts themes phrases within texts or sets of texts and to
quantify this presence in an objective manner .
 Content analysis is “a wide and heterogeneous set of manual or computer assisted
techniques for contextualised interpretations of documents produced by
communication processes in the strict sense of that phrase( any kind of text,
written , multimedia et) or signification of processes (traces and artifacts , having
as ultimate goal of production of valid and trustworthy inferences.
Data –Qualitative and quantitative
 Research data is: "the recorded factual material commonly accepted in the
scientific community as necessary to validate research findings.
 Some examples of research data:
 Documents (text, Word), spreadsheets, field notebooks, diaries
 Questionnaires, transcripts, News paper articles, Goverment reports, legislations
etc
 Data is the information that collected for the purposes of answering research
question . The type of data required depends on the aims of your research.
Primary data and secondary data
 Primary data is data collected for the first time by the researcher through direct
efforts and experience, specifically for the purpose of addressing research
problem.
 It is also known as the first hand or raw data. Primary data collection is quite
expensive, as the research is conducted by the organization or agency itself, which
requires resources like investment and manpower.
 The data collection is under direct control and supervision of the investigator.
 Data collection - methods includes surveys, observations,mailed questionnaires,
questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic
interviews, focus groups, case studies, etc.
Secondary data
 implies second-hand information which is already collected and recorded by any
person other than the user for a purpose, not relating to the current research
problem.
 It is the readily available form of data collected from various sources like censuses,
government publications, internal records of the organization, reports, books,
journal articles, websites and so on.
 Advantages of secondary data is that it is easily available, saves time and cost of
the researcher.
 some disadvantages is also associated with this, as the data is gathered for the
purposes other than the problem in mind, so the usefulness of the data may be
limited in a number of ways like relevance and accuracy.
 Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for acquiring data may not be
suitable to the current situation. Therefore, before using secondary data, these
factors should be kept in mind.
There are numerous types of secondary data
 documentary sources in the form of written and non-written materials, and survey
data in the form of statistical information.
 Written materials – organizational records such as internal reports, annual reports,
production records, personnel data, committee reports and minutes of
meetings ,communications such as emails letters, notes; publications, such as
books, journals, newspapers, advertising copy, government publications of all
kinds etc
 Non-written materials – television programmes, radio programmes, tape
recordings, video tapes, films of all types, including documentary, live reporting,
interviews, etc. works of art, historical artifacts etc.
 s Survey data – government census of population, employment, household
surveys, economic data, organizational surveys of markets, sales, economic
forecasts, employee attitudes. These may be carried out on a periodic basis, with
frequent regularity or continuously, or ad hoc or one-off occasions. They may also
be limited to sector, time, area
Comparison between primary and secondary data
 primary data refers to the data original data collected for the first time whereas Secondary
data is the already existing data.
 Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is one which relates to the past.
 Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand while secondary data is collected
for purposes other than the problem at hand.
 Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire,
personal interview, etc. On the contrary, secondary data collection sources are government
publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc.
 Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources like time, cost and manpower.
Conversely, secondary data is relatively inexpensive and quickly available.
 Primary data is always specific to the researcher’s needs, and he controls the quality of
research. In contrast, secondary data is neither specific to the researcher’s need, nor he has
control over the data quality.
 Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary data is the refined form of primary
data. It can also be said that secondary data is obtained when statistical methods are applied to
the primary data.
 Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and accurate as compared to the
secondary sources.
Quantitative data & Qualitative data
 Quantitative data collection is a method in which data that can be numerically
counted or expressed is collected.
 This data is represented by histograms, tables, charts, and graphs. It deals with
measurements like height, length, volume, area, humidity, temperature, etc.
For example;
Height = 20 m. Or sometimes they represent the exact number like,
Number of students = 200.
 This type of data is associated with some type of scale measurement.
 The most commonly used scale for this data is a ratio scale. Another general scale
measurement is the interval scale.
 Quantitative data is criticized for its lack of in-depth description thus it is used by
researchers along with qualitative data to back up its reliability with explanations
of the qualitative information.
Qualitative data and Quantitative data
 Qualitative data collection is a method in which the characteristics, attributes,
properties, qualities, etc. of a phenomenon or thing is described.
 It is the description of data in a language rather than in numbers. This method
does not measure the characteristics but describes them.
It is also sometimes referred to as “categorical data.” It does not focus on drawing
any inferences. It only deals with data that can be observed like texture, taste,
smell, beauty, but is not measured.
 Research uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods because the
qualitative data and description backs up the numerical data with the help of better
explanations and information
Qualitative data
 Qualitative data come in a vast array of forms: photos, maps, open-ended
interviews, observations, documents, and so forth.
 We can simplify such data into two major categories: field research (including
ethnography, participant observation, depth interviewing) and historical-
comparative research.
 Field research Qualitative research in which the researcher directly observes and
records notes on people in a natural setting for an extended period of time.
 It also involves conducting ethnographic case studies on a small group of people
for a length of time.
 While observing, researchers constantly consider what they observed and refine
ideas about its significance.
 Field research is usually used for exploratory and descriptive studies; it is
sometimes used for explanatory research.
Qualitative data

 Historical-comparative research Qualitative research in which the researcher

examines data on events and conditions in the historical past and/or in different
societies.
 Some studies investigate aspects of social life in a past historical era in one
society or in a few.
 Other studies examine a different culture or compare two or more cultures.
 We might focus on one historical period or several, compare one or more cultures,
or mix historical periods and cultures.
Content analysis
Content analysis is a technique for examining the content or information and
symbols contained in written documents or other communication media (e.g.,
photographs, movies, song lyrics, advertisements).
To conduct a content analysis, we identify a body of material to analyze (e.g., school
textbooks, television programs, newspaper articles) and then create a system for
recording specific aspects of its content.
Content analysis is used to determine the presence of certain words, concepts,
themes, phrases, characters or sentences within texts or sets of texts and to quantify
this presence in an objective manner.
The system might include counting how often certain words or themes appear. After
we systematically record what we find, we analyze it, often using graphs or charts.
Content analysis

 Used both in quantitative and qualitative research

 Reduce large amounts of unstructured content
 Describe characteristics of content
 Identify important aspects of content
 Present important aspects of content clearly and effectively
 Support of some argument
Types of content analysis

 Written texts (books , papers )

 Oral texts ( speech, theatre plays )
 Iconic texts( drawings, paintings, icons )
 Audio visual texts ( TV programs, movies , videos )
Content analysis method implies a series of transformation procedures formalisation
depending on the type of technique used . It enables the researcher to include large
amounts of textual information and systematically identify its properties.
In content analysis the text is coded and broken down into categories on a variety of
levels and then used to make inferences from the text.
Ethnography
 Ethnography is the art and science of describing a group or culture
 It’s a primary data collection method used in sociology and anthropology
 IT is a qualitative approach that studies the cultal patterns and perspectives of participants in
their natural settings
 Main objective is to understand a deep understanding o f people and their culture ,
characterized y field work
 Peoples behavior is studied in everyday where data gathered from ranges of sources usually
observation and conversations
 Approach to data collection wise soe what unstructured ,
Ethnography

 Methodological principles involves involves naturalism

 Understanding
 Discovery
 Data collection is based on
 Interviews
 Observations
 Dominations
Sociometry

 Sociometry is one of the technique which is used to analyses and study the extent
and nature of social relationship of individual within a group. It is a way to find
out the personality related problems e.g. it helps in identifying individuals who
are isolated or rejected in a group. With the help of this technique, we can identify
those individuals who do not like to friendly and want to be alone always
(isolates) while there are individuals whom the group does not want to befriend
(rejected). It is a technique which helps in understanding social behavior and
relationships.

sociometry

 There are usually three types of sociometry techniques: (i) the nomination (ii) the
social acceptance and (iii) the ‘who’s who’ or ‘guess who’. In the nomination
techniques there are certain given criteria on basis of which the participants are
asked to select the names of his/her peers against each criterion (e.g. names of
three close friends). In the technique of social acceptance, the levels of social
relationship are stated and the participant selects his/her sociometry choice. In 108
Methods of Data Collection the ‘Guess who’ technique, the participant has to
guess the name of the person on basis of certain descriptions mentioned of
related/known individuals e.g. this is the person who knows your weaknesses. The
sociometry data are presented in the form of a sociogram which shows attractions
and repulsions within a group with the help of which, a researcher tries to find out
the problems in to his/her group.
Variables
 There are two types of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary
in quantity, intensity, or amount (e.g. amount of education).
 The second type of concept and measures of the concept are variables.
 A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value or anything that has a
quantity or quality that varies.
 Variables take on two or more values.
 It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time.
Variables
 For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female.
 Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married,
divorced, or widowed.
 Family income is a variable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees.
A person's attitude toward women
 empowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable to highly
unfavorable.
 In this way the variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type;
 the examples can be production units , absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation,
grade, and age.
 A variable may be situation specific; for example gender is a variable but if in a
particular situation like a class of Research Methods if there are only female
students, then in this situation gender will not be considered as a variable.
The following are variable types
 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Control variable
 Intervening variable
 Extraneous variable
 Random variables
Dependent variable
 Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then
search for its causes.
 A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected
during the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent
variable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable
 The variable that is the effect or is the result or outcome of another variable is the
dependent variable (also referred to as outcome variable or effect variable).
 show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For
example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language
teaching procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test
of the content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the
dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.
Independent
 The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on
something else, is the independent variable.
 what is varied during the experiment; it is what the investigator thinks will affect
the dependent variable.
 An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable
& that the researcher has control over.
 Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s)
will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.
 An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated to determine the value
of a dependent variables
Moderator variable
 variable that affects the cause and effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables is termed as moderator variable.
 It means the effect of independent variable on dependent variable may be different
in the presence of moderator variable.
 The effect of moderator variable can be controlled. Such control makes the
variable controlled variable.
Control variables

 A control variable is the one element that is not changed throughout an

experiment, because its unchanging state allows the relationship between the other
variables being tested to be better understood.
 When conducting an experiment, all other variables must be kept the same
throughout the investigation; they should be controlled. The variables that are not
changed are called controlled variables.
 Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to
consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not
measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or
eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables
that have been controlled in this way are called control variables
Intervening Variables
 An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables.
Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that's why they are hypothetical).
  It comes between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between them.
 In a sense, the intervening variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent variable and acts
as an independent variable toward the dependent variable.
 These are also the variables that cannot be clearly measured or are to be ignored though they affect the cause
effect relationship of dependent and independent variable
 Eg.In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language
learning processes which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching
technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the
language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.
 A theory of suicide states that married people are less likely to commit suicide than single people. The
assumption is that married people have greater social integration (e.g. feelings of belonging to a group or
family). Hence a major cause of one type of suicide was that people lacked a sense of belonging to group
(family).  Thus this theory can be restated as a three-variable relationship: marital status
 (independent variable) causes the degree of social integration (intervening variable), which affects suicide
(dependent variable). Specifying the chain of causality makes the linkages in theory clearer and helps a
researcher test complex relationships.
Extraneous Variables
 Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the
variables that an experimenter is examining. Another way to think of this, is that these are
variables the influence the outcome of an experiment, though they are not the variables that
are actually of interest.
 Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables, but most must either be assumed
or excluded from the study. Such variables have to be identified by the researcher. In order to
identify the true relationship between the independent and the dependent variable, the effect of
the extraneous variables may have to be controlled.
 Confounding variable is another name used for extraneous variables which may have an effect
on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous.
They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were
caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be
controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting
results
. Random variables
 A random variable, usually written X, is a variable whose possible values are numerical outcomes of
a random phenomenon. There are two types of random variables, discrete and continuous.
 A discrete random variable is one which may take on only a countable number of distinct values such
as 0,1,2,3,4,........ Discrete random variables are usually (but not necessarily) counts. A discrete
variable is a variable whose value is obtained by counting.
 Examples:     number of students present
                                     number of red marbles in a jar
                                     number of heads when flipping three coins
                                     students’ grade level
 A continuous random variable is one which takes an infinite number of possible values. A
continuous variable is a variable whose value is obtained by measuring. 
 Examples:     height of students in class
                         weight of students in class
                         time it takes to get to school
                         distance travelled between classes
Relation between the variables
Once the variables relevant to the topic of research have been identified, then the researcher is
interested in the relationship among them.
A statement containing the variable is called a proposition. It may contain one or more than one
variable. The proposition having one variable in it may be called as univariate proposition, those with
two variables as bivariate proposition, and then of course multivariate containing three or more
variables.
Prior to the formulation of a proposition the researcher has to develop strong logical arguments which
could help in establishing the relationship.
For example, age at marriage and education are the two variables that could lead to a proposition: the
higher the education , the higher the age at marriage.
What could be the logic to reach this conclusion? All relationships have to be explained with strong
logical arguments.
If the relationship refers to an observable reality, then the proposition can be put to test, and any
testable proposition is hypothesis
Hypothesis
 a hypothesis is a tool of quantitative studies.
 It is a tentative and formal prediction about the relationship between two or more
variables in the population being studied, and the hypothesis translates the
research question into a prediction of expected outcomes.
 It (hypothesis) is a suggested answer to the problem under investigation.
 A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be
tested.
 A hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity. It
may be proved correct or incorrect
 So…a hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more
variables that we set out to prove or disprove in our research.
 hypothesis must include three components:
  The variable
  The population
  The relationship between the variables.
 A hypothesis should be:
  stated clearly using appropriate terminology;
  testable;
  a statement of relationships between variables;
  limited in scope (focused).
 Examples of a hypothesis are:
 Health Education programmes influence the number of people who smoke.
 Newspapers affect people's voting pattern.
 Attendance at lectures influences exam marks.
 Diet influences intelligence.
Types of hypotheses
 There are different types of hypotheses:
 Simple hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between a single independent
variable (IV) and a single dependent variable (DV) 
 For example:
 Lower levels of exercise (IV) will be associated with greater weight gain (DV).
Complex hypothesis

 - this predicts the relationship between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.
 Example – for a fully bed ridden patent 2 hourly position changing, 2 hourly back
care and a high protein diet will build up body resistance, will promote blood
circulation and will prevent bedsore. – In the above example, three independent
variable are:- A) 2 hourly position changing, B) 2 hourly back care, C) high
protein diet. – And three dependent variable are:- a) promotion of blood
circulation, B) building up of body resistance, C) prevention of bed sore.
Directional hypotheses  
 These are usually derived from theory. They may imply that the researcher is
intellectually committed to a particular outcome.
 They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables.
 Directional Hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable.
 • Example- High quality of nursing education will lead to high quality of nursing
practice skills.
 Non -directional Hypothesis predicts the relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable but does not specific the directional of the
relationship. •
 Example- teacher student relationship influence student’s learning.
Causal hypotheses
  Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.
 Causal Hypothesis predicts a cause and effects relationship or interaction between
the independent variable and dependent variable.
 The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent
variable.
 The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by the
independent variable.
 This hypothesis predicts the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable.
Null hypotheses
 These are used when the researcher believes there is no
relationship between two variables or when there is
inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a
research hypothesis .
 The null hypothesis predicts that, there is no relationship
between the independent variable and dependent variable.
 Null hypotheses can be:
  simple or complex;
  associative or causal.
Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Working hypothesis
 A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is
provisionally accepted as a basis for further research in the
hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the
hypothesis ultimately fails.
 Itis adopted to explain the relationship between some
observed facts for guiding the researcher in the
investigation of a problem
 A statement constituting working hypothesis is to be tested
and conformed, modifies or even abandoned as the
investigation proceeds .
Examples
 Working hypothesis :Population influences the number of
bank branches in a town
 Null hypothesis (Ho):population do not have any influence
on the number of bank branches in a town .
 Alternate hypothesis (H1) :The population has significance
effect on the number of bank branches in a town.
 A researcher formulates alternate hypothesis only
after rejecting the null hypothesis
FUNCTIONS / ROLES OF
HYPOTHESIS
Role of hypothesis in navigating research: A hypothesis, regardless of its source, states what a
researcher is looking for. It also suggests some plausible explanations about the probable relationships
between the concepts or variables indicated therein. In fact, it navigates the research.
 A hypothesis helps the researcher in drawing ‘meaningful conclusions’ supported by ‘relevant’
empirical data.
 A hypothesis serves as a sound guide to:
 (i) the kind of data that must be collected in order to answer the research problem;
 (ii) the way in which the data should be organized most efficiently and meaningfully, and
 (iii) the type of methods that can be used for making analysis of the data.
Role of ‘tested’ hypothesis:

 A hypothesis also performs the following significant functions

 Test theories: A hypothesis, when empirically proved, helps us in testing an
existing theory. A theory is not a mere speculation, but it is built upon facts. It is a
set of inter-related propositions or statements organized into a deductive system
that offers an explanation of some phenomenon. Facts constitute a theory when
they are assembled, ordered and seen in a relations
A hypothesis also performs the following significant functions

 Suggest new theories: A hypothesis, even though related to some existing theory, may,
after tested, reveal certain ‘facts’ that are not related to the existing theory or disclose
relationships other than those stated in the theory. It does not support the existing
theory but suggests a new theory.
 Describe social phenomenon: A hypothesis also performs a descriptive function. Each
time a hypothesis is tested empirically, it tells us something about the phenomenon it is
associated with. If the hypothesis is empirically supported, then our information about
the phenomenon increases. Even if the hypothesis is refuted, the test tells us something
about the phenomenon we did not know before.
 Suggest social policy: A hypothesis, after its testing, may highlight such ‘ills’ of the
existing social or legislative policy. In such a situation, the tested hypothesis helps us
in formulating (or reformulating) a social policy. It may also suggest or hint at
probable solutions to the existing social problem(s) and their implementation.
Functions
 The formulation of a hypothesis forces you to precisely specify what you want to
find out about, thus bringing specificity and clarity to your study.
 • The specificity and clarity needed to construct a hypothesis ensure you only
collect the information you need, thereby providing focus to the study. This also
enhances the validity of your study as it ensures you are measuring what you set
out to measure.
 • As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study.
 • The testing of a hypothesis enables you to specifically conclude what is true or
what is false, thus enabling you to contribute towards theory formulation.
The hypotheses play significant role in the scientific studies. The following are some of the
important role and functions of the hypothesis

 Helps in the testing of the theories.

 Serves as a great platform in the investigation activities.
 Provides guidance to the research work or study.
 Hypothesis sometimes suggests theories.
 Helps in knowing the needs of the data.
 Explains social phenomena.
 Develops the theory.
 Also acts as a bridge between the theory and the investigation.
 Provides a relationship between phenomena in such a way that it leads to the empirical testing of the relationship.
 Helps in knowing the most suitable technique of analysis.
 Helps in the determination of the most suitable type of research.
 Provides knowledge about the required sources of data.
 Research becomes focused under the direction of the hypothesis.
 It is very helpful in carrying out an enquiry of a certain activity.
 Helps in reaching conclusions, if it is correctly drawn
There are five main functions of hypothesis in the research process

 1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an

investigator to start his/her research works.
 2. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide
possible solutions to the problem.
 3. Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
 4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
 5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be
objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and
drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.
IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis as the Investigator’s ‘Eyes’: By guiding the investigator in further

investigation it serves as the investigator’s ‘Eyes’ in seeking answers to tentatively
adopted generalization. It Focuses Research: Without it, research is unfocussed
research and remains like a random empirical wandering. It serves as necessary
link between theory and the investigation. It Places Clear and Specific
 Goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis is that they place clear and specific
goals before the research worker and provide researcher with a basis for selecting
sample and research procedure to meet these goals.
 It Links Together: It serves the important function of linking together related
facts and information and organizing them into wholes. It Prevents
 Blind Research: The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate
gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under
study.
Research design
 The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you
to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as
possible.
 A research design is the plan of a research study.
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
 The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-
experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type and, if applicable, data
collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. 
 The length and complexity of describing research designs vary considerably
 The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
Research design
What, Why, Where will the study be carried out?
 type of data is required, source of required data, What periods of time will the study
include, sample design, techniques of data collection, How will the data be analyzed, In
what style will the report be prepared?
 Addressing above mentioned questions , overall research design into the following parts:
 (a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.
 (b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
 (c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
 (d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
important features of a research design as under

 : (i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
 (ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
 (iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.
 In brief, research design must, at least, contain
 (a) a clear statement of the research problem;
 (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
 (c) the population to be studied; and
 (d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data
Research design
 A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
 (i) the means of obtaining information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any; (iii) the objective of the problem to be studied; (iv) the nature of the problem to be
studied; and (v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
 Neutrality: The results projected in the research should be free from bias and neutral.
 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results
every time.  Research design should indicate how to form research questions  to ensure the
standard of results. Expected results can be obtained only if research design is reliable.
 Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire  developed from this design will then be valid.
 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that survey can be conducted on any part of a
population with similar accuracy.
 Features of good research
 The design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed is considered a good design.
 Maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a
problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research
problems.
 A research design for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of
the following factors
 (i) the means of obtaining information;
 (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
 (iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
 (iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
 (v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
Types of research designs
 Descriptive research design: The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the
state of view as it exists at present.it is a fact finding investigation where definite
conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship.
  In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case
under their research study. It is a theory-based design method which is created by gathering,
analyzing, and presenting collected data.
 This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive
design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is
not clear, you can conduct exploratory research. 
Types of research design
 Experimental research design: establishes a relationship between the cause and
effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by
the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors
the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable
such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research
method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand.
 Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
 (1) the Principle of Replication;
 (2) the Principle of Randomization; and the
 (3) Principle of Local Control
 According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated
more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one.
Types of research design experimental

 The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an

experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “chance.”
 The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental
designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to
vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in
such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated
from the experimental error.
Research design
 Explanatory research is actually a type of research design that focuses on explaining
the aspects of your study. The researcher starts with a general idea and uses research
as a tool that could lead to the subjects that would be dealt with in the incoming
future. is conducted in order to help us find the problem that was not studied before
in-depth. Methods of explanatory research design include literature searches, depth
interviews, focus groups, and case analysis.
 Literature Research-The literature search may include magazines, newspapers, trade
literature, and academic literature.
 In-depth study of every single problem-Anyone with information related to the
problem is a strong candidate for the depth interview
 Focus Group Research-
 Case Analysis Research-
Types of research -Exploratory
 Exploratory Research :This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the
problem is not clear or is vague. In exploratory research, all possible reasons which are
very obvious are eliminated , thereby directing the research to proceed further with limited
options. Expert surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation methods are used to
conduct the exploratory survey.
 main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
 Exploratory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore
their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details about
what, how, and why of research questions.
 The research design in such studies will be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study.
Types of research design Exploratory design
 Three methods in used for this research design includes
 (a) the survey of concerning literature;
 (b) the experience survey and
 (c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
 The survey of concerning literature is the most suitable method of formulating
the research problem or developing hypothesis. In this way the researcher should
review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where
hypotheses have not yet been formulated, researchers ’s task is to review the
available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it. Researcher also
attempts to make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different
research contexts to the area in which researcher is working. Sometimes the
works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation
and as such may be looked into by the researcher
Exploratory design
 Experience survey means
 the survey of people who have had practical experience in order to obtain insight into the relationships between
variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
 people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a
representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the
investigator.
 experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation
of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for
doing different types of research
 Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
 is suitable method for suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide.
 consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested by examining
the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other
approach may be adopted.
 Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse
information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure
for evoking insights
Types of Research Design
 Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the
underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about
the factors that create troublesome situations.
 This design has three parts of the research:
 · Inception of the issue
 · Diagnosis of the issue
 · Solution for the issue
In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what
he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut
definition of ‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research
design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability,
with due concern for the economical completion of the research study
Facts and theory
 Facts (or scientific facts) are what one can readily observe. Theories in science are
likened to the explanations to what has been observed.
 Facts are observations whereas theories are the explanations to those observations.
 Fact is usually thought of as a described state of affairs in which the descriptions
are true and highly supported.
 A theory is a logically connected set of hypothesis and facts which carefully
explains observations of the natural world that have been constructed using a
scientific method
Literature review
 Definition
 Systematic identification and location of documents concerning information related
to the research problem .
 Reviewing of literature includes :
 - Systematic identification
 -Location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research
problem being investigated .
 A well written literature review
 Organises literature
 Evaluates literature
 Identifies patterns and trends
 Synthesizes literature
Purpose
 Place one's original work in the context of existing literature.
 Interpret the major issues surrounding your topic.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research.
 Resolve conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Attain a good knowledge of the field of inquiry –facts, scholars etc
 Helps to narrow a problem
 Determine which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding
of your topic.
 Generation of hypotheses, RQs or Questions for further studies and provides a
way to further research on your topic
Types of review
 A traditional literature is written by examining a body of
published work, then writing a critical summary (an
impressionistic overview) of the body of literature. The
purpose of a literature review is make clear for a reader
what the research collectively indicates with regard to a
particular issue or question.
 Systematic reviews are a type of literature review that
collects and critically analyzes multiple research studies or
papers, using methods that are selected before one or more
research questions are formulated, and then finding and
analyzing studies that relate to and answer those questions
in a structured methodology.
types of literature review
  Narrative literature review critiques the literature and summarizes the body of a literature. Narrative review also draws conclusions
about the topic and identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge. You need to have a sufficiently focused research question
to conduct a narrative literature review.
  Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and well-defined approach compared to most other types of literature review.
Systematic literature review is comprehensive and details the timeframe within which the literature was selected. Systematic literature
review can be divided into two categories: meta-analysis and meta-synthesis.
 When you conduct meta-analysis you take findings from several studies on the same subject and analyze these using standardized
statistical procedures. In meta-analysis patterns and relationships are detected and conclusions are drawn. Meta-analysis is associated
with deductive research approach.
 Meta-synthesis, on the other hand, is based on non-statistical techniques. This technique integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of
multiple qualitative research studies. Meta-synthesis literature review is conducted usually when following inductive research approach.
  Argumentative literature review, as the name implies, examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. It should be noted that a potential for bias is a major
shortcoming associated with argumentative literature review.
  Integrative literature review reviews, critiques, and synthesizes secondary data about research topic in an integrated way such that
new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. If your research does not involve primary data collection and data analysis,
then using integrative literature review will be your only option.
  Theoretical literature review focuses on a pool of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena.
Theoretical literature reviews play an instrumental role in establishing what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to
what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested.
 At the earlier parts of the literature review chapter, you need to specify the type of your literature review and provide reasons for your
choice. Your choice of a specific type of literature review should be based upon your research area, research problem and research
methods. 
Contents of literature review
 Provide an overview of the subject, issue, or theory under
consideration.
 Divide outside works into categories and concepts (in
support or against a particular position).
 Connect the works to what has come before your work and
ideas.
 Provide conclusions about those works that make the
greatest contribution to the understanding and
development of your subject.
Observational research

 One of the primary qualitative method , which consists of systematically watching

, listening to and recording what takes place in a social setting over some period
of time .
 There are key dimensions to any observation in Sociology :
 1. Degree to which those being observed are aware that they are observed .
 2.Degree to which the presence of observer affects the actions to those being
observed.
 3.Degree to which process is structured.
 Types of observational methods
 Two types of observation -Participant observation and non participant observation
 Participant observation –researcher actually plays a role in the group being observed.
 Eg: A sociologist with tuberculosis studied the hospital he was in as well the actions of doctors , nurses and
other participants.
 Non participant observation the sociologist play little or no role in what is being observed. Data is collected by
interviewing the people associated with it.
 Do you think participant observers risk losing their objectivity when they grow too close to the subjects under
study ? Why or why not ? How can sociologists conducting observational research avoid becoming too involved
with subjects ?
Case study design
 A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry.
 often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily
researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing
whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real
world.
 Helps in understanding a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis of a
limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
 A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and
rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
 this research design is used to examine contemporary real-life situations and
provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the extension of
methodologies
Ethnography
 Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures.
 It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher
observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study.
 An ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing
the culture of a group.
 The resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and
the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group.
Content analysis
 Type of secondary analysis which relies on systematic and objective analysis of the content of
cultural artifacts in print, visual , audio and digital media , including photographs , movies etc.
 The goal is to use to use qualitative and especially quantitative methods to understand the content
of messages.