Continuous Stirred tank

Heater in series
Chemical Process Control Group Project

19CHE176 – Mansi Bansod

19CHE178 – Amogh Gaikwad
19CHE179 – Janhvi Wagachoude
19CHE180 – Ruchita Laswante
 Introduction
Introduction to CSTH in series and Mechanical
Design Aspects
 Introduction: -
Mixing Vessels play an essential function in chemical processes. Its utilities are varied and range from blending
chemicals to converting temperatures of fluids. In the look at of stirred tank heaters, we are able to use it typically as an
instrument for varying the temperature of fluid present in the tank. We normally use a steam enters and leave the tank
through a pipe. Here, we use the steam to increase the temperature of the tank. The objective is to control the output
temperature of the tank at desired value for the operating condition.

F1,
T0
Tank
1
h
R
1 F2,
1
T1

Tank
Q Q1, 2
1 o
h2
R
2

Q Q2,
F3,
2 o
Process flow diagram – continuous stirred tank heater in series T2
 Mechanical Design of Stirred Vessel in CSTH Process shaft

(3D Model of Stirred Vessel through Salome Software)

Stirred tank Vessel is easy to design and maintenance and operating conditions also
favorable, Temperature control is easily maintained, less expensive and multiple unit can
be joined to form cascade types systems.
It made up of primary following things: -
1. Helical Coil - For heating purpose Input
2. Ruston (Disc) Turbine – Agitation Purpose
3. Feed Ports – For multiple feed for inputs, outlet, sensors and others

Ruston Turbine (6 Discs): - output

Majorly use for Radial flow types of system and it has good
Mixing efficiency. For STH, commercial uses Disc (Ruston
Turbine).

Helical Coil: -
Ruston Turbine
Helical coil is used for heating process fluid, hot steam passing
through tube to heating fluid (indirect contact type of heating
Multiple Impeller System
system) Helical Coil
Dynamics of System
Dynamics characteristics of CSTH for each tank their
transfer function and responses
 Dynamics of System (linear Assumption)

Assumption used in system: -

1. Flow rate of incoming and outgoing fluid is constant
2. Constant density
3. Level in system is also constant
4. Heat losses through system is less
5. Constant heating through coil through steam

For stirred tank Heater - 1

1 𝒌𝒑 21
1 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑻 0 (𝒔 )+ 𝑸 ( 𝒔)
𝝉 𝒔 +1 𝝉 𝒔+1
Now we will see Non-linear assumptions based system
For stirred tank Heater -2
1 𝒌𝒑 21
2 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑻 1( 𝒔 )+ 𝑸 (𝒔 )
𝝉 𝒔 +1 𝝉 𝒔 +1
 Dynamics of System (Non-linear Condition)
Material Balance equation
[ Rate of Accumulation of mass] = [ Flow Incoming] + [ Flow Outgoing] + [Generation/Reaction]
In the System
……... (Constant Volume and Density)

Now Assume nonlinear relation equation: -

𝐴1
d H1
dt ( )
= F1−
√ h 1 …… ……….(1)
R1
As we substitute, we make nonlinear relation with height (Level) (h) and Valve resistance (R).

d H1 1
= F1−
dt A 1 ( )
h1
R1
√……… …….(2)

Enthalpy Balance Equation

[ Rate of Accumulation of Enthalpy] = [Enthalpy Incoming] + [ Enthalpy Outgoing] + [Generation]
In the System
 

V = A 1 h1 ,W =Fρ… …. Aswe know

Solving accumulation term and substitute in eq(3)
………………… (5)
=

 
Let’s take consider B as red term and A as Red term and get common
out as density and Specific Heat
 
=

Now substitute in Equation (6) and divide whole by ρ and Cp

…………… (7)

Solving further equation

…………… (8)

Substitute “B” in Equation (10)

And put formulas of Heat supply and Heat removal through electrical coil heater
Q1 =(UA)coil(Tsteam -T) Qo  =F∆Hvap
…………… (9)
Now Linearizing the Equation no.9 through Taylor series expansion method,
Taylor Series Expansion Basic Formulas

Applying To each term to linearizing the function

df/dx= dT1dx=f(F1,T0,F2,T2,T1,Tsteam,T,h1)
Applying partial derivative to each term,
d f 1 −1
= ¿
d F1 A 1   h1

[(  
 Now Substitute and forms one equation to get one Equation form & Apply Deviation Variables,
Deviation Variables Applies,
F1-F1s= F1,
F2-F2s= F2,
h1-h1s= H1,
T0-T0s= T0,
T1-T1s= T1,
Tsteam-Tsteam,s= Tsteam,
T-Ts= T,

Making One Equation by substituting Deviation variables and Linearizing Terms

=

Applying Laplace transform to each term

  +

Steady state assumption so, T(0) = 0;

Rearranging Equation into First order type Equation
Get divide term and form into format of τ = time Constant and Kp = gain
 
− K 1p 15 K 1p 25 K 1p 35 K 1p 45 K 1p 55 K 1p 65
T 1 ( s) = F 1 ( s )+ F 2 ( s) + T steam ( s ) − T (s )+ T 0 (s )− H 1 ( s)
( τs+ 1 ) ( τs +1 ) ( τs+1 ) ( τs+1 ) ( τs+1 ) ( τs+1 )
 Where in this Transfer function Model;
For Example;

For stirred tank Heater - 2

++

Where in this Transfer function Model;

For Example;

 
Using below reference for Steady state value we calculate Kp gains and time constant
Design and Simulation of Hierarchical Control of Two Continuous Stirred Tank Heater in Series - Normah Abdullah1*,
Ramin Razmi1, Tan Chung Chuan1, Zulkifli Mohd Nopiah2 Azah Mohamed and Mohd Zaki Nuawi4
F1s 0.015 m3/min Gain of Sys te m
F2s 0.012 m3/min Kp1 30.116 Kp15 35.2911595
T0s 293.16 K Kp2 49.603 Kp25 58.1263158
T1s 323.16 K Kp3 4.1634 Kp35 4.87878733
Tre f 273.16 K Kp4 - 4.163 Kp45 4.87878733
U 4400 W/K Kp5 - 0.853 Kp55 1
ΔHa vp 433 KJ /kg Kp6 0.0149 Kp65 0.01743789
Cp 1.2 KJ /kg.K Kp7
ρ 1000
873.7 Kg/m3
A1 1.2 m2 Time Cons tant
h1s 0.84 m τ 1.1718

F3s 0.01 m3/min

Gain of Sys te m
F2s 0.012 m3/min
Kp1 49.607 Kp15 38.7638795
T2s 353.16 K
Kp2 80.032 Kp25 62.5387706
T1s 323.16 K
Kp3 4.1984 Kp35 3.28071457
Tre f 273.16 K
Kp4 4.1984 Kp45 3.28071457
UAcoil 4400 J /min.K
Kp5 0.012 Kp55 0.00938082
ΔHa vp 433 J /Kg
Kp6 1.2797 Kp65 1
Cp 1.2 J /Kg.K
Kp7
ρ 1000 Kg/m3
873.7
A2 1.2 m2
Time Cons tant
h1s 0.84 m
τ 0.78142
R1 1.1
h2s 0.833 m
Response of System
Simulation Results for tank-1: -
Step Response: - Impulse Response: -

Ramp Response: - Bodes Diagram: -

Simulation Results for tank-2: -
Step Response: - Impulse Response: -

Ramp Response: - Bodes Diagram: -

Response Comparison (set point change)

Orange – Linear change

Red – Non-Linear change
Blue – set point
Instrumentations
Different Types of sensors and transmitter for controlling different
variable: -
1. Thermocouple
2. Level Sensors
3. Pressure Indicator
4. Flow meter
 Thermocouple
Thermocouple is a very reliable solution for measuring the temperature of any object or environment because its cost is extremely low,
easy to use and capable for providing accurate reading. These are manufactured in wide range of styles such as infrared thermocouple,
thermocouple probes, thermocouple probes with connectors, transition joint probes and just wire or bare wire thermocouple probes etc.
Means these are available in market in different styles or models, so each model has different shape and technical specification. Therefore
for using it, for any specific application it is very important to understand the functionality, basic structure and range of that one
thermocouple. Its basic diagram is as follows:

 
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLE OF THERMOCOUPLE:
In a thermocouple type instrument, the electrical current to be measured
is passed through a heater element. And the heat produced by the heater
element is sensed by a thermocouple, as result an EMF is generated at
its terminals which can be measured with the help of a Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument.

The EMF generated is proportional to the temperature and hence to the

RMS value of the current passing through the heater. The scale of the
PMMC instrument can be calibrated to read the current passing through
the heater. This is the basic thermocouple instrument working principle.
 

The e.m.f generated in a thermocouple is given by:

E= a(∆ɵ)+

Here ,

∆ɵ = difference in temperature between two junctions (in 0C)

a,b = constants

Generally ‘a’ is very large as compare to ‘b’ so ‘b’ can be neglected. Therefore, the above expression can be approximated as
under:

E= a(∆ɵ )

∆ɵ= E/a

These are basically not directly installed inside the pipes or the equipment's as they are usually installed in protective wells so
that can be replaced or removed easily without shut down of the plant.

The instruments can be used for both AC as well as DC applications. Theses instruments are very useful and accurate to measure
current and voltages at very high frequencies. The thermocouple type instruments consist of the following major parts:

This instrument has nearly SQUARE LAW RESPONSE. Thus if we use an ordinary PMMC instrument having a uniform air
gap, the scale will not be uniform.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THERMOCOUPLE:
Thermocouple’s whole working principle of thermocouple is based on basically the three effects a) Seedback Effect b) Peltier
Effect c) Thomson Effect

So now let us understand what these effects exactly are and how it is necessary in the working principle.

 (A) SEEDBACK EFFECT: According to seedback when two metals are connected together for making two junctions then
electromotive force would be developed at two junctions. The of this force would be different with metal material combinations.

 (B) PELTIER EFFECT: According to Peltier state, when two different metals are connected together for making two junctions
then electromotive force (EMF) would be developed with in the circuit. The reason of this emf is due to different temperatures of
two junction with in circuit.

 (C) THOMSON EFFECT: According to Thomson state, when two different metals are connected together for making two
junctions then voltages or potential is existed within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the whole length of
thermocouple conductor.
PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT:
The thermocouple consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are welded together
at the junction point. This junction considers as the measuring point. The junction
point categorizes into three types:

(A) UNDEGROUNDED JUNCTION: In undergrounded junction, the conductors

are entirely isolated from sheath. It is used for high-pressure application works. The
major advantage of using such type of junction is that it reduces the effect of the
stray magnetic field.

(B) GROUNDED JUNCTION: In such type of junction the metals and protective
sheath are welded together. The grounded junction use for measuring the temperature
in the corrosive environment. This junction provides resistance to the noise.

(C) EXPOSED JUNCTION: Such type of junction uses in the places where fast
response requires. The exposed junction is used for measuring the temperature of the
gas. The materials used for making the thermocouple depends on the measuring
range of temperature.

 
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIT: -
Neglecting the conduction and radiation heat losses and the effect of catalytic reaction on a thermocouple –
wire surface in the heat balance equation of the thermocouple (equation no. 3) we have the following set of
equation for estimating input temperature .

……………………………………..(1)

Where the real gas temperature is the input, T is output of the thermocouple and τ(ς) is the time constant. In
practice, this approach is infeasible as the measured temperature may be noisy. So assuming zero order hold
on the inputs and sampling time , the temperature sensor differential (equation 1) can be discretized,
resulting in the nonlinear difference equation.

…………………..(2)

The parameters of the discrete and continuous thermocouple model are related by
 and ……………………(3)

In general, the thermocouple time constant is defined as follows in (equation 4)

…………………………(4)

Where ρ, c, d and h are the density, heat capacity of the thermocouple-wire material, the diameter of the wire, and the
local heat transfer coefficient, respectively. From the relationships of heat transfer coefficients between gas and particles
for a single sphere (equation 5), the time constant can be described as follows:

………………………..(5)

Here k, α, β is constant where, k is decided by physical attributes of thermocouple α, β are undetermined coefficients.
ACCURACY AND POSSIBLE ERRORS CHARTS:
TEMPERATURE T TYPE E TYPE J TYPE K TYPE S TYPE
-2000C 3 - - 3 -
-1000C 1.5 - - 2.5 -
00 C 0.5 1.7 1.5 1.5 1
2000C 0.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1
4000C - 2 1.6 1.6 1
6000C - 3 2.4 2.4 1
8000C - 4 - 3.2 1
10000C - - - 4 1
12000C - - - 9 1.3
14000C - - - - 1.9
16000C - - - - 2.5

THERMOCOUPLE LIMITS OF ERROR

CONDUCTOR TYPE Thermocouple measurement error comes from many
(WHICHEVER IS GREATER) sources including noise, linearity and offset error, the
thermocouple itself and the measurement of the
  STANDARD SPECIAL
reference of cold junction temperature.
T TYPE 0
C or 0
C or

E TYPE 0
C or 0
C or
J TYPE 0
C or 0
C or
K TYPE 0
C or 0
C or
S TYPE 0
C or 0
C or
ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE:
1) The combination of the materials should produce sufficiently high emf when they are connected. This ensures that the emf can be
measured easily and the value of the temperature can be obtained correctly.

2) The combination of materials should have high resolution or fast response time: This means for every degree change in the temperature of
the junctions there is sufficient emf generated within the circuit so that it can be sensed and measured easily.

3) Higher stability: The properties of the combination should remains stable for the specified temperature range.

4) Resistant to oxidation: The materials used for the thermocouple should be resistant to the oxidation, this is especially very important for
the materials that are used at high temperatures since they tend to oxidize at those temperatures.

COMPANIES PRODUCING THE

UNITS IN INDIA: COSTS OF THERMOCOUPLES: -
THERMOCOUPLE APPROXIMATE COST
•Globe and Militronics Engineering
CONDUCTOR
•Bossman Instruments Technology (RS)
•Jagjan Private Limited
•Ajmer Thermotech Pvt. Ltd T TYPE 180-8000
•Tempsens Instruments Pvt. Ltd E TYPE 200-4500
•CHINO Corporation India Pvt. Ltd J TYPE 150-5000
•Power Vision Heating Systems
K TYPE 200-550
•Industrial Thermocouples and RTDs
•Techmen Corporation S TYPE 280-10000
 Pressure Indicators:
Piezoelectric sensors rely on the electrical properties of quartz crystals rather than a resistive bridge transducer. These crystals
generate an electrical charge when they are strained. Electrodes transfer the charge from the crystals to an amplifier built into the
sensor. These sensors do not require an external excitation source, but they are susceptible to shock and vibration.

Scientific Principle behind instrument:

Pressure measurement is the analysis of an
applied force by a fluid(liquid or gas) on a
surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of
force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have
been developed for the measurement of pressure
and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display
pressure in an integral unit are called pressure
meters or pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer is a good example, as it uses the surface
area and weight of a column of liquid to both
measure and indicate pressure. Likewise, the widely
used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which
both measures and indicates and is probably the best-
known type of gauge.
WHY PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE SENSOR?
Capacitive and piezoelectric pressure transducers are generally stable and linear,
but they are sensitive to high temperatures and are more complicated to set up
than most pressure sensors. Piezoelectric sensors respond quickly to pressure
changes. For this reason, they are used to make rapid pressure measurements from
events such as explosions. Because of their superior dynamic performance,
piezoelectric sensors are the least cost-effective, and you must be careful to
protect their sensitive crystal core.

Types of various pressure

Physical Construction of Unit:
The piezoelectric effect requires materials with a specific asymmetry in the crystal structure. This includes
some natural crystals, such as quartz or tourmaline. In addition, specially formulated ceramics can be
created with a suitable polarisation to make them piezoelectric. These ceramics have higher sensitivities
than natural crystals. A useful output can be generated with as little as 0.1% deformation. Because the
piezoelectric materials are rigid, only a very small deflection of the material is required to get a usable
output signal. This makes the sensors very robust and tolerant of over-pressure conditions. It also means
they respond rapidly to changes in pressure. The pressure sensor can be affected by any external force on
the piezoelectric element, for example, by forces caused by acceleration or noise. Microsensors can be
constructed using thin films. Zinc oxide was one of the first materials used. This has largely been replaced
by ceramics made from materials such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) because of their larger
piezoelectric effect.
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) can be created by combining piezoelectric thin films with
micromachined silicon membranes. Piezoelectric materials are also used in some other types of MEMS
sensors. For example, the inverse piezoelectric effect is used to generate surface acoustic waves through a
diaphragm. The distortion of the surface under pressure can then be detected by the changes it causes in
the waves that are received by another piezoelectric element.
Accuracy and Range of operation:

The output is linear over a wide range, typically 0.7 KPa to 70 MPa (0.1 to
10000 psi) with an accuracy of about 1%. Ceramic sensors are subject to a
loss of sensitivity over time. But this is usually quite small; typically, less
than 1% per year. There may also be a small loss in sensitivity when first
exposed to high pressure and temperature. The effects of this can be
avoided by cycling the sensor through the maximum expected pressure
and temperature before deploying them. The frequency response of a
piezoelectric sensor drops off at low frequencies because the generated
charge cannot be retained. At high frequencies there is a peak
corresponding to the resonant frequency of the piezoelectric element. The
sensor is normally used within the flat region of the response curve
between these two extremes (see below).

Accuracy of this device is 0.1 – 1 % of full span. Absolute pressure

ranges from 0–0.7 to 0–350 kPa while gauge pressure ranges 0 – 0.12
kPa to 0 – 1.4 MPa.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
• One of the main advantages of piezoelectric pressure sensors is their ruggedness. This makes them suitable for use in a variety of harsh
environments.

• Apart from the associated electronics, piezoelectric sensors can be used at high temperatures. Some materials will work at up to 1,000ºC.
The sensitivity may change with temperature but this can be minimised by appropriate choice of materials.

• The output signal is generated by the piezoelectric element itself, so they are inherently low-power devices.

• The sensing element itself is insensitive to electromagnetic interference and radiation. The charge amplifier and other electronics need to be
carefully designed and positioned as close as possible to the sensor to reduce noise and other signal errors.

• Piezoelectric sensors can be easily made using inexpensive materials (for example quartz or tourmaline), so they can provide a low-cost
solution for industrial pressure measurement.

• It has many advantages:

 lighter weight,
 reliable work,
 simple structure,
 high signal-to-noise ratio,
 high sensitivity and
 signal bandwidth, etc.
 Flow meter Instrumentation
(Orifice meter)

It is a device that is used to measure the flow rate or average velocity of

the flowing fluid (Liquid or gases) in a pipe.
 It is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop.

Working principle behind measurement: -

A flow meter is meant to measure the amount of gas, steam, or liquid passing around or through it. Although there are many types of
flowmeters that work in different ways, they all have one set goal, and that is to give the most accurate flow rate report based on the
application. The data gotten could either be for general research, process control, or processing. Flow meters are either used to measure
volume or mass.
In a volumetric flow meter, the flow (Q) is equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A),
and the flowing fluid’s velocity (v): Q = A * v. In mass flow, the flow rate in a flow meter is given as ṁ = Q ∗ρ ( ρ here, is the fluid density
and Q is the volumetric flow rate).
Many times, sectors consider mass flow rate, more so in combustion, selling or buying gases, or chemical reactions.
 Alternative types of Flow meter: -
Volu metri c Fl ow met ers
Volumetric flow meters got their name because these flow meters measure the fluid volume
passing through a specific location in a set period of time. Volumetric flow meters provide an
instantaneous analog, digital, or pulse output of the volumetric flow rate of the liquid or gas.
Various types of Volumetric Flowmeters are available as listed below

 Differential Head type

 Orifice plates
 Venturi meters these are the intrusive type flow
 Differential Area type (Rotameters) meters
 Turbine flowmeters
 Electromagnetic flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters these are non-intrusive type flow
 Cross corelation flowmeters meters
 Vortex flowmeters
 Positive Displacement Meters
 Annubar
Physical construction of Unit: -

An orifice meter consists of an orifice plate, a holding device, upstream downstream meter piping, and pressure taps. On of
the most critical part of the meter is the orifice plate, particularly the widely used square-edged concentric plate, whose
construction requirements are well documented in standards such as AGA-3 and ISO 5167-1. The most common holding
system is a pair of orifice flanges. In every case, the orifice must be installed concentric with the pipe within limits stated by
the standard.
An orifice plate installed without specified upstream and downstream lengths of pipe controlled to close tolerances and/or
without properly made pressure taps (usually flange) is not a “legitimate” flow meter; it must have specific tests run to
determine its calibration. Since this is not economical, almost all orifice systems are built to meet the standard(s). This allows
calculations to be made with specified tolerances.

Orifice Meter Consists of following four Parts:

1.Inlet : fluid will enter into the orifice meter through the inlet section.
2.Orifice Plate : It is situated between the inlet and outlet and the plate is used to generate pressure
drop that will enable the flow rate. It is thin size having one hole from that the water will pass.
3.Flow Conditioner : It is used to increase the linear flow in the inlet section of the meter tube and
is installed near the inlet section of the meter tube.
4.Outlet section : the pressure of the fluid is being discharged and determined.
Material used for the unit
1. stainless steel 2.prosper bronze 3. nickel 4.cast carbon

Dynamic characteristics of the unit:

d1= Inlet section diameter
P1= Inlet section pressure
v1= Inlet section velocity of the fluid There are some assumption to derive orifice meter
A1= Inlet section Area discharge 
d2= Outlet section diameter 1.Fluid must be ideal
P2= Outlet section pressure 2.Fluid flow irritation. steady and continuous
v2= Outlet section velocity of the fluid 3.The inner surface must be frictionless
A2= Outlet section Area
Cd= Coefficient of discharge

Bernoulli’s Theorem: In an ideal that is an incompressible fluid, the sum of all pressure energy, kinetic energy, and Potential energy is equal in
section 1 will be the same as in section 2
Now applying the Bernoulli’s equation in this at point 1 and 2 we get discharge as,

Q=
Here h is the differential head and A0 is the area of orifice
Accuracy
If all the required criteria are met, the orifice meter can produce
an accuracy of ±0.5%. Any deviation from the required criteria
results in uncertainty beyond this level of accuracy.

Precision
The orifice Accuracy can be affected by the viscosity, density,
and pressure of the fluid. It requires a straight pipe for good
precision and accuracy.

Errors possible:
Companies producing orifice meters in India
1.Cosmic technologies
2.ZTEK control systems private ltd.
3.Aimtech
4.Om industrial services
5.Nilkanth enterprise
6.Petrotech engineers
7.Delta Engineering
8.Flowtech measuring instruments pvt ltd.
Level Transmitters Instrumentation
(Capacitance Based Level Transmitter)
Introduction: -
Liquid level was probably the first of the process variable to be measured and controlled. The
measurement of level is defined as the ‘determination of the position of an existing interface between
two media’. These media are usually fluids, but they may be solids or a combination of a solid and a
fluid. The interface can exist between a liquid and its vapor, two liquids, or a granular or fluidized solid
and gas.

The working principle of level transmitters mentioned above varies according to their underlying principle. For instance,
capacitance level transmitters operate through a capacitor, hydrostatic level transmitters depend on the pressure of a fluid in a
storage container for level measurement, while ultrasonic level transmitters convert the distance travelled by an ultrasonic
wave to determine the level, and so on. However, all these level transmitters measure the level in either of the three ways:

 The weight of the fluid

 The pressure head of the fluid

 The position of the fluid in a container

A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a small thickness of an insulator such as solid, liquid,
gas, or vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric.

Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance between the plates.

C = Capacitance
= absolute permittivity of free space
K = relative dielectric constant of insulating material
A = effective area of plates
D = distances between plate

Alternative Level Measuring sensors: -

Types of Level Transmitters Instruments: -
Physical Construction of Unit: -
Material used for unit: -

The materials used for the level measurement should be selected according to the equipment (e.g. piping, vessel, tank…) and the
process fluids. Unless otherwise specified, wet parts of instrumentation devices (displacer, float, diaphragm.) should be
minimum AISI 316 or 316 L SS.

Material of housing should be AISI 316 or 316 L SS for offshore. Alternatively, other materials such as A365 grade
aluminum (epoxy painted) or GRP may also be used.
 Conversion of measured value for indication and transmission used for unit: -
Level Height Calculations: -
•LEVEL – The capacitance of the LEVEL electrode is proportional to the liquid height (hw). It has to be as high
as the maximum (MAX) allowed liquid level.

•REFERENCE LIQUID (RL) – The REFERENCE liquid electrode accounts for the incremental unit
measurements of the level electrode. The liquid level has to be higher than the RL height in order to have a liquid
and temperature independent measurement system.

•REFERENCE ENVIRONMENT (RE) – A second (optional) reference electrode accounts for container
properties. It has to be placed above the maximum (MAX) allow level of liquid to isolate it from the liquid level,
allowing it to track environmental factors rather than the primary target (the liquid in the container).

To calculate the level of the liquid at any interval height, the formula below is used:
𝑪 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 − 𝑪 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 ( 0 )
𝒆𝒍 =𝒉 𝑹𝑳 𝑪 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =𝒉 𝒘 𝜺 𝒘 + ( 𝒉 𝑳 − 𝒉 𝒘 )
𝑪 𝑹𝑳 − 𝑪 𝑹𝑬
Where,
 = the unit height of the reference liquid sensor (often 1) Where,
 = capacitance of the LEVEL sensor  = maximum height of the liquid
 = capacitance of the level sensor when no liquid is present (empty)  = height of the liquid
 = capacitance of the REFERENCE liquid sensor  = dielectric of liquid
 = capacitance of the reference environmental sensor  = dielectric of air
   
After measuring capacitance, then it converts into current and then
signal by general formula,
 

 
Where,
1. V = voltage across plates
2. C = Measured capacitances
 
Dynamics characteristics of unit: -
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
𝑅= 3
𝑚
𝐶h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( )
𝑠
This is defined on the basis of change noticed in the difference in levels of two tanks needed for the unit change in the rate of flow of fluid. This means the
ratio depends on the nature of the flow.
For liquid level system, the equation of capacitance is given as: -
𝑑h
𝐶 =𝑞 𝑖 −𝑞𝑜
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑠𝐻 ( 𝑠 ) +𝐻 ( 𝑠 )=𝑅𝑄 𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑑h=(𝑞¿¿𝑖−𝑞𝑜)𝑑𝑡 ¿ 𝐻 ( 𝑠 ) (𝑠𝑅𝐶+1)=𝑅𝑄 𝑖 (𝑠)
h
𝑅=
𝑞𝑜 Further,
h On transforming
𝑞𝑜 =
𝑅 Therefore,
Also, Now, taking Laplace transform, we will get
On substituting the value of qo, we will get
h 𝑯 (𝒔) 𝑹
𝐶𝑑h=(𝑞¿¿𝑖− )𝑑𝑡¿ =
𝑅 𝑸𝒊 (𝒔) 𝟏+𝒔𝑹𝑪
𝑅𝐶𝑑h=(𝑅𝑞¿¿𝑖−h)𝑑𝑡 ¿
𝑑h
𝑅𝐶 =𝑅𝑞 𝑖 − h
𝑑𝑡
𝑑h
𝑅𝐶 +h= 𝑅𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Accuracy and Precision: -
Accuracy of Level transmitters generally in the range of ± 1% of full span (Constant dielectric) and
Precision about ± 1% of span

Possible errors in the Measurements: -

Major common errors in level measuring sensors as classified: -
•If a process coats or fouls a capacitance probe, a compensation option may be required to prevent false high-level readings.
•Continuous level capacitance transmitters require that the liquid being measured remains at a constant dielectric value. If this is
not the case, the transmitter should have the capability to compensate for the liquid dielectric variation.
•Probes mounted directly in the vessel typically cannot be replaced with the process in service unless they are mounted in a
sensor cage with isolation valves.
•The rod probes require sufficient height clearance, depending on the length of the probe.
•It cannot measure liquids which have a viscosity above 2000 cst.

Approximate cost of the unit: -

Depends upon different factors like IP rating, Power supply inputs and DPDT output cost of equipment varies, in our case of
capacitance level measure sensor, price ranges from 800-20,000 Rupees.
Prices of some of types are list out: -
Types available in Market Price (In Rupees)
AECAP 101-105 3000-5000
AECAP 408A-408T 2000-10,000
SS/TF-CFT2 20,000
Control Strategies
Feedback Control system

Cascade control system

 PID – Proportional Integral Derivative Controller
Block diagram of a Feedback PID Control Loop
System Description: -
A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to regulate temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other
process variables. PID (proportional integral derivative) controllers use a control loop feedback mechanism to control process
variables and are the most accurate and stable controller.

Now We have 2 continuous stirred Tank reactor in Series, we have to 2-PID loop in one combined cycle. According to System
description, we can 2 PID loops different and operate too.

d(s) Disturbance

SP + Feedback
Process y(s)
(Actuator) Transfer
Controller
_ Function

Sensor
P&ID Diagram
Block diagram of a Feedback PID Control Loop for Tank 1 Temperature Control.

Direct Substitution Method: - To(s) Disturbance 2

Characteristics equation becomes:

G(Closed Loop) = 1+Gv(s).Gc(s).Gp(s).H = 0 F1(s)
Disturbance 1

Substitute the values into the characteristics method we get;

( )( )( )
SP + T1(s)
2 4.878 1.89 Feedback Valve
Process

1+0.85 ∗ K c ∗ ∗ ∗ Controller Tsteam(s) (STH-1)

0.28 s+1 1.1718 s+1 0.98 s+1 -

Solving following characteristics equation we get, Thermocouple (Sensor-1)

1.1484 s3 +3.30029 s 2+3.15189 s+15.6729 K c =0 Applying Zieglar-Nicholos Method: -

Now substitute s = iω, we get Design of Controllers
•Ultimate Gain (Kcu) = 0.57793
1.1484(i ¿ ¿3 ω3 )+3.30029(i ¿ ¿2ω 2)+3.15189(iω)+15.6729 K c =0¿¿ •Crossover frequency (ω co) = 1.65668
•Ultimate Time period of Oscillation (Pu) = 3.79263
So, Now getting into form of equation a+bi and we get,
Crossover frequency: - ω = 1.65668   P Controller PI Controller PID Controller
Gain of system: - Kc = 0.57793 0.288965 0.262695 0.33999
- 3.16052 1.89631
- - 0.478407
Block diagram of a Feedback PID Control Loop for Tank 2 Temperature Control.

Direct Substitution Method: - T1(s)

Disturbance 4

Characteristics equation becomes:

G(Closed Loop) = 1+Gv(s).Gc(s).Gp(s).H = 0 F2(s) Disturbance 3

Substitute the values into the characteristics method we get;

SP + T2(s)
Valve Process

( )( )( )
Feedback
2 3.28071 1.89 Controller (Actuator) Tsteam(s) (STH-1)
1+0.85 ∗ K c ∗ ∗ ∗
0.65 s+1 1.1718 s+1 0.59 s+1 -

Solving following characteristics equation we get, Thermocouple (Sensor-2)

0.299672 s 3 +1.3524 s2 +2.02142 s+10.5409 K c =0

Now substitute s = iω, we get Applying Zieglar-Nicholos Method: -
Design of Controllers
0.299672(i ¿ ¿3ω3 )+1.3524(i ¿ ¿2ω2)+2.02142(iω)+10.5409 K c=0¿¿ •Ultimate Gain (Kcu) = 0.865429
•Crossover frequency (ω co) = 2.59718
So, Now getting into form of equation a+bi and we get, •Ultimate Time period of Oscillation (Pu) = 2.41923
Crossover frequency: - ω = 2.59718
Gain of system: - Kc = 0.865429   P Controller PI Controller PID Controller
0.432714 0.393376 0.5090751
- 2.016025 1.209615
- - 0.30240375
Feedback control system (Overall combine loop)
(using Simulink)
Simulation result (combine CSTH in series)

Orange – Uncontrolled
Blue- PID of Stirred tank Heater -1
Yellow – PID of stirred tank Heater -2
Cascade Control System

Secondary Loop Gd

Gp2 Gp1 T1(s)

Gc1 Gc2 Gv
_
Gm2

Gm1
Primary Loop

Direct Substitution Method: - Secondary Loop

Characteristics equation becomes:
G(Secondary Loop) = 1+Gv(s).Gc2(s).Gp2(s).Gm2(s) = 0
Substitute the values into the characteristics method we get;
=0

Solving following characteristics equation we get,

 0.3281 s 3 +1.7879 s 2+3.3436 s+1.28 +0.6577 K c =0
So, Now getting into form of equation a+bi and we get,
Crossover frequency: - ω = 1.04515
Gain of system: - Kc2 = 4.7681

Direct Substitution Method: - Primary Loop

Characteristics equation becomes:
G(primary Loop) = 1+Gv(s).Gc2(s).Gp2(s).Gm2(s)+Gp1(s)*Gp2(s)*Gv(s)*Gc1(s)*Gm1(s)*Gp1(s) = 0
Substitute the values into the characteristics method we get;

Substitute Gc2 = Kc2 = 4.7681;

  PID Controller
So, Now getting into form of equation a+bi and we get, 0.04864
Crossover frequency: - ω = 1.4469 2.1762
Gain of system: - Kc1 = 0.1439 0.544063
THANK YOU