CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Engineering Materials

 1. Classification of materials
The engineering materials are classified as follows:

1.1 Metals: Metals are the iron groups which includes all types of iron and steel. Metals are dense, shiny elements that are good
conductors of heat and electricity. Most metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, denser than the other
elemental substances. Example of metals are iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, lead etc.

Metals also devided into:

i) Ferrous metals: are metals contain iron and are magnetic. They are prone to rust and therefore require a protective
finish, which is sometimes used to improve the aesthetics of the product it is used for as well. Example of ferrous metals
are cast iron, wrought iron and steel and alloys of ferrous metal are silicon, steel, high speed steel, spring steel etc.

ii) Non-ferrous metals: are metals that do not contain iron and are not magnetic. They do not rust. Examples of non-
ferrous metals are copper, aluminum, zinc, lead etc. and alloys of non- ferrous metals are Brass, bronze, duralumin
etc.

1.2 Non metals: Non-metals are those which lack all the metallic attributes. They are good insulators of heat and electricity. They
are mostly gases and sometimes liquid. Some are even solid at room temperatures like Carbon, Sulphur and
phosphorus. Examples of Non-metals are leather, rubber, plastics, asbestos, carbon etc.
 1.2 Other classification of engineering materials:

Engineering materials can also be classified as below-

a) Metals and Alloys

b) Ceramic Materials

c) Organic Materials
a) Metals and Alloys

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which have a number of differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such

as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.

Pure metals are having very a low mechanical strength, which sometimes does not match with the mechanical strength required for certain applications. To overcome this draw back alloys

are used.

Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys are having good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.

Example: Steels, Copper, Aluminium,Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.
b) Ceramic Materials

Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of inorganic compounds such as Oxides, Nitrides, Silicates and Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional

Structural, Electrical, Magnetic, Chemical and Thermal properties. These ceramic materials are now extensively used in different engineering fields.

Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete, garnet, Magnesium oxide (MgO), Cadmium sulfide(Cds), Zinc oxide (Zno), Silicon Carbide (sic) etc.

c) Organic Materials (Polymers)

All organic materials are having carbon as a common element. In organic materials carbon is chemically combined with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances.

Generally organic materials are having complex chemical bonding.

Example: Plastics, PVC, Synthetic Rubbers etc.

1.3 A composite material: is a combination of two materials with different physical and chemical properties. When they are combined they create a material which is specialised to do

a certain job, for instance to become stronger, lighter or resistant to electricity. 

They can also improve strength and stiffness. The reason for their use over traditional materials is because they improve the properties of their base materials and are applicable in

many situations.
2. Difference between Metals and Non Metals

No. Property Metals Non-Metals

All metals are having crystalline All Non-metals are having amorphic &
1. Structure structure mesomorphic structure
State varies material to material. Some
Generally metals are solid at normal
2. State temperature are gas state and some are in solid
state at normal temperature.
Valence electrons are tightly bound
Valance electrons are free to move
Valance electrons and with nucleus which are not free to
3. within metals which makes them
conductivity good conductor of heat & electricity move. This makes them bad conductor
of heat & electricity
4. Density High density Low density
5. Strength High strength Low strength
6. Hardness Generally hard Hardness is generally varies
7. Malleability Malleable Non malleable
8. Ductility Ductile Non ductile
9. Brittleness Generally non brittle in nature Brittleness varies material to material
Generally do not possess metallic
10. Lustre Metals possess metallic lustre
lustre (Except graphite & iodine)
 3. Properties of materials

What are material properties?

Properties are factors that qualitatively or quantitatively influence the response of a given material to the imposition of stimuli and constraints.

e.g., forces, temperature, etc. Similarly, properties make a material suitable or unsuitable for a particular industrial use. In other words, when we refer to the properties of a material, we are talking

about characteristics that we can recognize, measure or test.

1. Physical properties of materials

2. Mechanical properties of materials

3. Electrical properties of materials

4. Magnetic properties of materials

5. Chemical properties of materials

1. Physical properties of materials

Physical properties are those that can be observed without changing the composition of the material. For example, some of the most important physical properties of metals are:

• Density: The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ although the Latin letter D can also be used.

•Boiling point:The boiling point of a liquid varies according to the applied pressure; the normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the standard sea-level atmospheric pressure

(760 mm of mercury). At sea level, water boils at 100° C (212° F).

•Melting or Freezing point: Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid at normal atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a melting point is the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid at

normal atmospheric pressure.

•Linear coefficient of expansion: is a material property which characterizes the ability of a matrial to expand under the effect of each degree rise in temperature. It tells you how much the developed part will remain

dimensionally stable under temperature variations.

•Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity refers to the inherent ability of a material to transfer or conduct heat.

•Electrical resistivity: Eletrical resistivity, represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho), is a measure of the resistance of a specific material of a given size, to the electrical current

conduction that flows through it. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is expressed in ohm-metres (Ωm).
2. Mechanical properties of materials

They are those that determine the behavior of a material under the forces

applied to it and reflect the relationship between its response to a load

and the deformation it undergoes.

The following are the mechanical properties of materials.

R
R = V/I or,
R = ρ(L/A)
V = Voltage, I = Current, ρ =
Resistivity
4.
 CHAPTER TWO

Introduction to Conducting Materials

2.1 Conducting materials:

A conductor, or electrical conductor, is a substance or material that allows electricity to flow through it. In a conductor, electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or ions, move easily from

atom to atom when voltage is applied.

2.2 Resistivity and factors affecting resistivity

2.2.1 Resistance: Every conductor possesses some resistance. It may be very high (insulator) or maybe low (conductor). Resistance is effectively helpful in controlling the flow of electric current.

So before understanding resistivity and what are the factors affecting resistivity, you have to understand resistance. What is it, and how it works?

Resistance of a material can be measured by: R = ρ(L/A)

Where,

L = length of the conductor

A = area of the cross-section of the conductor

ρ = resistivity
From the above equation, resistance (R) is directly proportional to the (L) length of the conductor and (ρ) resistivity. And the resistance (R) is inversely proportional to (A) area of the cross-

section of the conductor. So, the resistance of a material is affected by its length, area of cross-section, material, and temperature.

2.2.2 What is resistivity?

The electrical resistivity of a particular conductor material is a measure of how strongly the material opposes the flow of electric current through it. This resistivity factor,

sometimes called its “specific electrical resistance”, enables the resistance of different types of conductors to be compared to one another at a specified temperature according

to their physical properties without regards to their lengths or cross-sectional areas. Thus the higher the resistivity value of ρ the more resistance and vice versa.
2.3 Factors effecting the resistivity of electrical materials are listed below:

I. Temperature IV. Age Hardening

II. Alloying V. Cold Working

III. Mechanical stressing

2.3.1 Temperature

The resistivity of materials changes with temperature. Resistivity of most of the metals increase with temperature. The change in the resistivity of material with change in temperature is given by

formula as:

Where,

o
ρt1 is the resistivity of material at temperature of t1 C and

o
ρt2 is the resistivity of material at temperature of t2 C

o
α1 is temperature coefficient of resistance of material at temperature of t1 C.

If the value of α1 is positive, the resistivity of material is increase.

The resistivity of metals increase with increase of temperature. Means the metals are having positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Several metals exhibit the zero resistivity

at temperature near to absolute zero. This phenomenon is “called the superconductivity”.

The resistivity of semiconductors and insulators decrease with increase in temperature. Means the semiconductors and insulators are having negative temperature coefficient of

resistance.

2.3.2 Alloying

Alloying is a solid solution of two or more metals. Alloying of metals is used to achieve some mechanical and electrical properties. The atomic structure of a solid solution is irregular

as compared to pure metals. Due to which the electrical resistivity of the solid solution increases more rapidly with increase of alloy content. A small content of impurity may increase

the resistivity of metal considerably. Even the impurity of low resistivity increases the resistivity of base metal considerably. For example the impurity of silver (having lowest resistivity

among all metals) in copper increase the resistivity of copper.

2.3.3 Mechanical Stressing

Mechanical stressing of the crystal structure of material develops the localized strains in the material crystal structure. These localized stains disturb the movement of free electrons through the

material. Which results in an increase in resistivity of the material. Subsequently, annealing, of metal reduces the resistivity of metal. Annealing of metal, relieve the mechanical stressing of

material due to which the localized stains got removed from the crystal structure of the metal. Due to which the resistivity of metal decrease. For example, the resistivity of hard drawn copper is

more as compared to annealed copper.

2.3.4 Age Hardening

Age hardening is a heat treatment process used to increase the yield strength and to develop the ability in alloys to resist the permanent deformation by external forces. Age hardening is also

called “Precipitation Hardening”. This process increases the strength of alloys by creating solid impurities or precipitate. These created solid impurities or precipitate, disturb the crystal structure

of metal which interrupts the flow of free electrons through metal/Due to which the resistivity of metal increases.
2.3.5 Cold Working

Cold working is a manufacturing process used to increase the strength of metals. Cold working is also known as “Work hardening” or “Strain hardening”. Cold working is used to increase the mechanical

strength of the metal. Cold working disturbs the crystal structure of metals which interfere with the movement of electrons in metal, due to which the resistivity of metal increases.

3. Conducting Materials:

Materials used for conducting electricity are known as Conducting materials. These materials play a vital role in Electrical Engineering. It is interesting to know the applications of these materials in

the field of Electrical Engineering, like the type of materials used in Transmission lines, Electrical Machines, Starters, and Rheostats, etc., along with different conducting materials, we will also go

through their alloys.

4. Materials of low and high resistivity

4.1 Classification of conducting material based on Resistivity or Conductivity

Electrical conducting materials are the basic requirement for electrical engineering products. They can be classified as below based on Resistivity or Conductivity. .

A classification chart of conducting materials based on resistivity or conductivity

 4.1.1 Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting Material

Material having low resistivity or high conductivity are very useful in electrical engineering products. These materials are used as conductors for all kind of windings required in electrical machines, apparatus

and devices. These materials are also used as conductor in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.

Some of low resistivity or high conductivity materials and their resistivity are given below:

•Silver with resistivity of 1.58 µΩ -cm

•Copper with resistivity of 1.68 µΩ -cm
•Gold with resistivity of 2.21 µΩ -cm
•Aluminum with resistivity of 2.65 µΩ -cm

4.1.2 High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting Material

Materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting are very useful for electrical engineering products. These material are used to manufacture the filaments for incandescent lamp,

heating elements for electric heaters, space heaters and electric irons etc. Some of materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity are listed below:
•Tungsten
•Carbon •Nichrome – Vor Bright ray – C
•Nichrome or Bright ray – B •Manganin
5. Conducting materials used for different applications

Classification of Electrical Conducting Materials based on their application.

Chart of conducting materials based on their applications

Conducting materials based on area of application

1. Materials used as conductor for coils of electrical machines

2. Materials for heating elements

3. Materials for lamp filaments

4. Material used for transmission line

5. Bimetals

6. Electrical Contact Materials

7. Electrical Carbon Materials

8. Material for Brushes used in Electrical Machines

9. Materials used for fuses

5.1 Materials Used as Conductor for Coils of Electrical Machines

Materials having low resistivity or high conductivity such as copper, silver and aluminum can be used for making coils for electrical machines. However, looking to optimum conductivity, mechanical

strength and cost, copper is much suitable for making coils for electrical machines.

5.2 Materials for Heating Elements

Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as Nichrome, Kanthal, Cupronickel and Platinum etc. are used for making heating elements. Materials used for heating elements must

possess following properties-

•High melting point

•Free from oxidation in operating atmosphere

•High tensile strength

•Sufficient ductility to draw the metal or alloy in the form of wire

5.3 Materials for Lamp Filaments

Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as Carbon, Tantalum and Tungsten etc. are used for making incandescent lamp filament. Materials used for making incandescent lamp filament must

possess following properties-

• High melting point

• Low vapour pressure

• Free from oxidation in inert gas (argon, nitrogen etc.)

medium at operating temperature

• High resistivity

• Low
Low thermal coefficient
temperature of expansion
coefficient of resistance

• Should have high young modulus and tensile strength

• Sufficient ductility so that can be drawn in the form of very thin wire

• Ability to be converted in the shape of filament

• High fatigue resistance against thermally induced fluctuating stresses

• Cost should minimum

5.4 Material Used for Transmission Line

Materials used for making conductor for transmission line must possess following properties

•High thermal stability

•High conductivity
•Low coefficient of thermal expansion
•High tensile strength
•Low cost
•Light weight
•High resistance to corrosion
Materials use for transmission lines are listed below:

•Copper •Galvanized steel

•Aluminum •Steel core copper
•Cadmium-Copper alloys •Steel core aluminum
•Phosphor bronze
5.6 Bimetals

Many combinations of metals with different “Coefficient of linear thermal expansion” can be used to form the bimetals. Some of the commonly used combinations for making bimetallic strips are

listed below-

•Iron, nickel, constantan (high “Coefficient of linear thermal expansion”)

5.7 Electrical Contact Materials

Electrical contact materials refer to a class of metals that are used in the electrical interfaces of electrical connectors and electrical switches. While selecting a suitable material for electrical

contact, we have to consider basic factors. Some of most important factors of these are listed below :

•Contact resistance
•Contact force
•Voltage and current

5.8 Electrical Carbon Materials

Carbon in widely used in electrical engineering. Electrical carbon materials are manufactured from graphite and other forms of carbon. Carbon is having following applications in

electrical Engineering

•Carbon electrodes for electric furnaces

•For making filament of incandescent lamp •Arc lighting and welding electrodes
•For making electrical contacts •Component for vacuum valves and tubes
•For making resistors •For makings parts for telecommunication equipment’s
•For making brushes for electrical machines such as DC
machines, alternators.
•For making battery cell elements
5.9 Material for Brushes Used in Electrical Machines

Before selecting the material for brushes, we should keep in our mind the following requirements in a brush :

•Contact resistance

•Thermal stability

•Lubrication properties

•Mechanical strength

•Low brittleness
Material used for Brushes in electrical machines are listed as:

•Carbon

•Natural graphite

•Electro graphite

•Metal graphite

•Copper
5.10 Materials Used for Fuse Elements

A fuse commonly consists of a current-conducting strip or wire of easily fusible metal that melts, and thus interrupts the circuit of which it is a part, whenever that circuit is made to

carry a current larger than that for which it is intended.

Fuse element is primary requirement of a fuse unit. The fuse element should have following properties-

Low resistance – to avoid the undesirable voltage drop across the fuse element, so that it should effects the normal functioning or performance of circuit or device or equipment.

Low melting point – the fuse element must have low melting point. So that it blow out due to heating by excess current during over load or short circuit.

Different types of metals and alloys are used for fuse element. Some of these elements are listed below –
•Aluminum
•Lead and tin
•Copper
•Silver
•Rose’ Alloys
•Wood alloys
6. Thermocouple Material

6.1 What is a Thermocouple?

A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small voltage when heated (or cooled).

This voltage is measured and used to determine the temperature of the heated metals. The voltage for any one temperature is unique to the combination of metals used.

Many metals and metallic alloys are suitable to be used in thermocouples as thermoelectric effect occurs when two materials are put in contact forming a thermal junction.

However, thermocouple materials are chosen according to some important characteristics: maximum sensibility over the entire operating range, long-term stability including

high temperatures, cost, and compatibility with the available instrumentation. Most often thermocouple materials are metallic alloys with two or more components to

achieve the desired characteristics to a range of temperatures.

6.2 Types of Thermocouple?

Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals, usually referred to by a letter, e.g. J, K etc giving rise to the terms type J thermocouple, type K thermocouple etc. Each

combination has a different temperature range and is therefore more suited to certain applications than others.
7. Superconductivity

Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct electric current with practically zero resistance. This capacity produces interesting and potentially useful effects. For a

material to behave as a superconductor, low temperatures are required. Or

Superconductivity is the property of certain materials to conduct direct current (DC) electricity without energy loss when they are cooled below a critical temperature (referred to as

Tc). These materials also expel magnetic fields as they transition to the superconducting state.

Superconductivity explained
8. Applications of Superconductors

If you think you can’t relate to the real-life applications of superconductors, well, here is your chance to think again…!!!

•Superconducting magnets are used for accelerating the particles in the Large Hadron Collider.

•SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) are being used in the production of highly sensitive magnetometers. They are generally used for the detection of land mines.

•Superconducting magnets are also used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines.

•As we know due to the electrical resistance, there is a power loss while power transmission. So nowadays, superconducting cables are used in place of ordinary cable lines to avoid power loss.

•Superconductors are also being used for the development of high-intensity Electro Magnetic Impulse (EMP). They are used to paralyze all the electronic equipment within the range.

•Last but not least, Maglev trains work on the superconducting magnetic levitation phenomenon. Japenese Maglev train is a real-life example of magnetic levitation.
 CHAPTER 3
Semiconductor Materials
Revision: Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow
of an electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical current
flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical
current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current flow
Revision: Conductors
• Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow
through them with ease.
• Best element conductors include:
– Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:
– Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
– Salt water
Revision: Conductor Atomic Structure

• The atomic structure of good conductors

usually includes only one electron in their
outer shell.
– It is called a valence electron.

– It is easily striped from the atom, producing

current flow.

Copper Atom
Revision: Insulators
• Insulators have a high resistance so current does not flow in
them.
• Good insulators include:
– Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of several elements.
• The insulator atoms are tightly bound to one another so
electrons are difficult to strip away for current flow.
 Definition: Semiconductors
• A semiconductor is a material usually comprised of silicon, which conducts electricity more than an
insulator, such as glass, but less than a pure conductor, such as copper or aluminum. Their
conductivity and other properties can be altered with the introduction of impurities, called doping, to
meet the specific needs of the electronic component in which it resides.
• Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals)
and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).
• Common elements such as Gallium arsenide, carbon, silicon, and germanium are
semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.
• Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser
diodes, etc.
 1. Characteristics of semiconductors
1.1 Semiconductor range of conduciveness

The semiconductors fall somewhere midway between conductors and insulators.

1.2 Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in semiconductors. Holes (valence

electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both

electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.

1.3 Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because of their different band

structures and scattering mechanisms.

Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an electric field is applied, holes

cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movent. The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to

higher shells results in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger atomic force by the

nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.

The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

1. Effective mass of particles is lesser

Cont…
The bond model example of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free electrons

(blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created takes the opposite charge of

the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in the lattice.

bond model  of electrons in silicon of valency 4

1.4 Band Theory of Semiconductors

In solids, several bands of energy levels are formed due to the intermixing of atoms in solids. We call these set of

1.4.1 Classification of Energy Bands

energy levels as energy bands.
(I) Valence Band

The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band.

When compared with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the
(II) Conduction Band

conduction band on receiving any external energy.

The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these valence electrons leave the outermost orbit even at

room temperature and become free electrons. The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as conduction

(III) Forbidden
electrons. The Energy Gapband is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest occupied energy levels.
conduction

The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as forbidden gap. As the name suggests, the forbidden gap

doesn’t have any energy and no electrons stay in this band. If the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band electrons are
Or
Energy Bands Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.)

at room temperature

25°

 Energy gap-the difference between the energy levels of any two orbital shells

 Band-another name for an orbital shell (valence shell=valence band)

 Conduction band –the band outside the valence shell where it has free electrons.

 eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is subjected to a 1V difference of potential
81
1.5 Fermi Level in Semiconductors

What is Fermi Level?

The highest energy level that an electron can occupy at the absolute zero temperature is known as the Fermi Level. The Fermi level lies

between the valence band and conduction band because at absolute zero temperature the electrons are all in the lowest energy state. Due to

the lack of sufficient energy at 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level can be considered as the sea of fermions (or electrons) above which no electrons

In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus, accommodating more electrons at the lower energy
exist. The Fermi level changes as the solids are warmed and as electrons are added to or withdrawn from the solid.

levels. However, in an n-type semiconductor, the density of states increases, therefore, accommodating more electrons at higher energy

levels.
1.6 Semiconductor Valence Orbit

• The main
characteristic of a
semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence
orbit.
1.7 Crystal Lattice Structure

• The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is their
ability to link together to form a
physical structure called a
crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together with
one another sharing their outer
electrons.
• These links are called covalent
bonds.
2D Crystal Lattice Structure
1.8 Semiconductors can be Insulators

• If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice
structure forms an excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one
another and are not free for current flow.
• Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as intrinsic.
• Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are tightly bound together with
one another, the electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
• Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
• Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
1.9 Semiconductors can be Conductors
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added.

• “Impurities” are different elements.

• This process is called doping.

• An impurity, or element like arsenic,

has 5 valence electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping) will allow
four of the arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the neighboring silicon
atoms.
• The one electron left over for each
arsenic atom becomes available to
conduct current flow.
1.10 Resistance Effects of Doping

• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be lots of extra electrons so
the resistance of the material will be low and current will flow freely.
• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer free electrons so the
resistance will be high and less current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance can be achieved.
Another Way to Dope
• You can also dope a semiconductor material
with an atom such as boron that has only 3
valence electrons.
• The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form
covalent bonds with its neighboring
semiconductor atoms as before. But one
atom is missing from the bond.
• This place where a fourth electron should be
is referred to as a hole.
• The hole assumes a positive charge so it
can attract electrons from some other
source.
• Holes become a type of current carrier like
the electron to support current flow.
2. Properties of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique property makes it an excellent material

to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.

Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external energy (thermal agitation). It causes a certain

number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy

states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to electrons and holes are equally important.

Why does the Resistivity of-5

Semiconductors
6 go down with Temperature?
Resistivity: 10  to 10  Ωm

The difference in resistivity between

5 conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference in charge carrier density.
-6
Conductivity: 10  to 10  mho/m

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge carriers increases rapidly with increase in
Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative

temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the temperature coefficient negative.
Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes
3. Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it works as a conductor.

2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for

energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.

3. Lesser power losses.

4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.

5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.

6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type”
semiconductor.
“N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce
locations called holes is called “P type” semiconductor.
“P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
 Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a positive
terminal that attracts the free electrons
in the semiconductor and pulls them
away from their atoms leaving the
atoms charged positively.
• Electrons from the negative terminal of
the supply enter the semiconductor
material and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms missing
one of their electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows from the
positive terminal to the negative
terminal.
 Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative supply
terminal are attracted to the positive
holes and fill them.
• The positive terminal of the supply
pulls the electrons from the holes
leaving the holes to attract more
electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows from the
negative terminal to the positive
terminal.
• Inside the semiconductor current flow
is actually by the movement of the
holes from positive to negative.
 In Summary
• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent insulator.
• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to add or subtract
electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons with vacancies
called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the lower the resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor material can be made as
conductive as desired.
Types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can be classified as:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductors are further classified as:

a. n-type Semiconductors.

b. p-type Semiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductor

• Semiconductor in pure
form is known as Intrinsic
Semiconductor.
Si Si
Si
• Ex. Pure Germanium, Pure
Silicon.
FREE ELECTRON

Si Si Si
• At room temp. no of
HOLE
electrons equal to no. of
holes.
Si Si Si

Fig 1.
Intrinsic semiconductor energy band diagram

Conduction Band

FERMI

LEVEL
Energy in ev

Valence Band

Fig 2.
Fermi level lies in the middle
Extrinsic
Semiconductor

• When we add an impurity to pure semiconductor to

increase the charge carriers then it becomes an Extrinsic
Semiconductor.

• In extrinsic semiconductor without breaking the covalent

bonds we can increase the charge carriers.
Comparison of semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductor Semiconductor
1. It is in pure form.
1. It is formed by adding
trivalent or pentavalent
impurity to a pure
semiconductor.

2. Holes and electrons are 2. No. of holes are more in p-

equal.
type and no. of electrons
are more in n-type.
(Cont.,)

3. Fermi level lies in 3. Fermi level lies near

between valence and valence band in p-type and

conduction Bands. near conduction band in n-type.

4. Ratio of majority and

minority carriers is 4. Ratio of majority and
unity.
minority carriers are equal.
 Comparison between n-type and p-type
semiconductors

N-type P-type
• Pentavalent impurities • Trivalent impurities are added.
are added. • Majority carriers are holes.
• Majority carriers are electrons. • Minority carriers are electrons.
• Minority carriers are • Fermi level is near the valence
holes. band.
• Fermi level is near the conduction
band.
N-type Semiconductor

• When we add a pentavalent impurity to pure

semiconductor we get n-type semiconductor.

N-type
Pure
As
Si
si
N-type Semiconductor

• Arsenic atom has 5 valence electrons.

• Fifth electron is superfluous, becomes free electron and

enters into conduction band.

• Therefore pentavalent impurity donates one electron

and becomes positive donor ion. Pentavalent impurity
known as donor.
P-type Semiconductor

• When we add a Trivalent impurity to pure semiconductor

we get p-type semiconductor.

P-type
Pure

Ga Si
si
P-type Semiconductor

• Gallium atom has 3 valence electrons.

• It makes covalent bonds with adjacent three electrons of

silicon atom.

• There is a deficiency of one covalent bond and creates a

hole.

• Therefore trivalent impurity accepts one electron and

becomes negative acceptor ion. Trivalent impurity known
as acceptor.
Carriers in P-type Semiconductor

• In addition to this, some of the covalent bonds break due

temperature and electron hole pairs generates.

• Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority

carriers.
P and N type Semiconductors

Acceptor ion Donor ion

P N

+
- - - + + +
-

+
- + + +
- - -

+
- + +
- -

Minority electron Majority holes Majority electrons Minority hole

Comparison of semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic Semiconductor

Semiconductor 1. It formed by adding trivalent
1. It is in pure form. or pentavalent impurity to a
pure semiconductor.

2. No. of holes are more in p-

type and no. of electrons are
2. Holes and electrons more in n-type.
are equal.
3. Fermi level lies near valence
band in p-type and near
3. Fermi level lies in conduction band in n-type.
between valence and
conduction Bands.
Conduction in Semiconductors

Conduction is carried out by means of

1. Drift Process.

2. Diffusion Process.
Drift process

A
CB B

VB

• Electrons move from external circuit and in conduction band of a semiconductor.

• Holes move in valence band of a semiconductor.

Diffusion process

• Moving of electrons from higher

concentration gradient to lower

concentration gradient is known as

diffusion process.

X=a
Applications Semiconductor Materials

Semiconductors are used in almost every sector of electronics.

1. Consumer electronics: Mobile phones, laptops, games consoles, microwaves and refrigerators all operate with the use of semiconductor

components such as integrated chips, diodes and transistors. The high demand for these devices is part of the reason there are currently such long

wait times for many consumer electronic devices.

Applications Semiconductor Materials

2. Embedded systems: An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software designed for a specific function. Embedded

systems are small computers that form part of a larger machine. They can control the device and allow user interaction. Embedded systems that we

commonly use include central heating systems, digital watches, GPS systems, fitness trackers, televisions and engine management systems in

vehicles.
Applications Semiconductor Materials

3. Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of the semiconductor material is one of the parameters that defines the thermal resistance of

each heat flow path. Some semiconductors have high thermal conductivity, so can be used as a cooling agent in certain thermoelectric applications.

4. Lighting and LED displays: Some semiconductors, usually those available in liquid or amorphous form as a thin-coated film, can produce light

and are used in LEDs and OLEDs. LED LCD screens use a backlight to illuminate their pixels, while OLED's pixels produce their own light.
5. Solar cells: Silicon is also the most commonly used semiconductor in the production of solar panel cells.That concludes

our brief guide to the applications of semiconductors. As you can see, semiconductors are integral to the modern world and

play an important role in the electronic devices we use or come into contact with every day
Advantages and disadvantages of semiconductor materials

Advantages:

1.These are smaller in size

2. Long life compared to vacuum tubes.

3. Operated on low DC power

4. Accuracy is high compared to vacuum tubes

5. Noise is less

6. Warm up is not needed in semiconductors.

Disadvantages:
 CHAPTER 4

INSULATING MATERIALS

Introduction to Insulating Materials:

The Electrical Insulating Material/insulating materials are the materials that inhibit heat transmission, electric current, or noise.

The importance of the insulating materials is ever-increasing in day by day as there is an innumerable number of types of

insulators available in the market. The selection of the right type of insulating matter is very important because the life of the
2. Characteristics of a Good Insulating Material
A good insulating material should possess the following characteristics:

1. Large insulating resistance.

2. High dialectic strength.

3. Uniform viscosity—it gives uniform electrical and thermal properties.

4. Should be uniform throughout—it keeps the electric losses as low as possible and

electric stresses uniform under high voltage difference.

5. Least thermal expansion.

6. When exposed to arcing should be non-ignitable.

7. Should be resistance to oils or liquids, gas fumes, acids and alkalies.

11. High thermal conductivity.

12. Low permittivity.

13. High thermal strength.

14. Free from gaseous insulation to avoid discharges (for solids and gases).

15. Should be homogeneous to avoid local stress concentration.

16. Should be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.

3. Properties of Insulating Materials

The properties of insulating materials are enumerated and discussed as under:

1. Electrical Properties

2. Thermal Properties

3. ChemicalofProperties
1. Electrical Properties Insulating Materials:

4. Mechanical
I) Insulation Properties.
Resistance:It may be defined as the resistance between two conductors (or systems of conductors)

usually separated by insulating materials. It is the total resistance in respect of two parallel paths, one through the body

Insulation resistance is affected by the following factors:

and other over the surface of the body.

1. It falls with increase in temperature.

2. The resistivity of the insulator is considerably lowered in the presence of moisture.

a) Resistivity:

This is usually measured as insulation resistance. This term when applied to insulating materials needs qualification to

b) Volume
indicate Resistivity:
whether it refers, to volume or surface.

Volume resistivity is the resistance between opposite faces of a cube of unit dimensions; it is usually expressed in

mega ohm-centimetres. The volume resistivity of most insulating materials is affected by temperature, the resistivity

decreasing with an increase of temperature, i.e., the temperature co-efficient of resistivity is negative.
c) Surface Resistivity:

Surface resistivity is the resistance between the opposite sides of a square of unit dimension on the surface of the

materials, it is usually expressed in mega ohms per centimetre square. The surface resistivity of any square on the
d) Insulation Resistance of a Cable:

In a cable useful current flows along the axis of the core but there is always present some leakage of current. This leakage is

radial i.e., at right angles to the flow of the useful current. The resistance offered to this radial leakage of current is called

“insulation resistance” of the cable. If the length of the cable is greater, the leakage area is also greater meaning thereby that

more current will leak. In other words insulation resistance is decreased. Hence the insulation resistance is inversely

proportional to the length of the cable.

 ii. Dielectric Strength:

If the voltage across an insulating materials is increased slowly the way in which the current increases depends

upon the nature and condition of the material as illustrated schematically in Fig. below.
For material I, the current

increase very slowly and In contrast, for material II the current

approximately linearly with

increases more rapidly until current
voltage until a large, sharp

increase result in what can be “runway” occurs. It can be shown that

The potentialdisruptive
described gradient at which
dielectric
the voltage at which current “run way”
breakdown.
breakdown occurs is termed as
occurs depends upon the rate at which
dielectric strength. It is easily

the voltage is increased, so that a more

calculated for uniform fields by dividing
The dielectric strength of an insulating material decreases with the length of time that voltage is applied. Moisture,

contamination, elevated temperatures, heat ageing, mechanical stress, and other factors may also markedly decrease

dielectric strength to as little as 10% of the short time values at standard laboratory condition.

Dielectric failure that occurs along the interface between a solid insulating material and air, or a liquid insulating material

is termed
iii. “surface breakdown”.
Power Factor:

Power factor is a measure of the power loss in the insulation and should be low. It varies with the temperature and usually

increases with the rise in temperature of the insulation. A rapid increase indicates danger.
iv. Dielectric Constant (Permittivity):

Dielectric, insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. When dielectrics are placed in an electric field, practically no

current flows in them because, unlike metals, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material. Instead,

electric polarization occurs. The positive charges within the dielectric are displaced minutely in the direction of the electric field, and the

A dielectric
negative material
charges is a poor
are displaced conductor
minutely in the of electricity
direction but an
opposite efficient
to the electricsupporter
field. This of electrostatic
slight separation fields.
of charge, or polarization,

reduces the electricconstant

The dielectric field within the dielectric.
is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the permittivity of free space. It is an

expression of the extent to which a material concentrates electric flux, and is the electrical equivalent of relative

magnetic permeability.
As the dielectric constant increases, the electric flux

density increases, if all other factors remain unchanged.

This enables objects of a given size, such as sets of

metal plates, to hold their electric charge for long periods

of time, and/or to hold large quantities of charge.

Materials with high dielectric constants are useful in the

V. Dielectric Loss:

The dielectric losses occur in all solid and liquid dielectrics due to:

I) A conduction current: The conduction current is due to imperfect insulating qualities of the dielectric and is calculated by the

application of ohm’s law- it is in phase with the voltage and results in a power (I²R) loss in the material which is dissipated as heat.

(ii) Hysteresis: Dielectric hysteresis is defined as the lagging of the electric flux behind the electric force producing it so that under

The dielectric loss is affected by the following factors:

varying electric forces a dissipation of energy occurs, the energy loss due to this cause being called the dielectric hysteresis loss.

(i) Presence of humidity … it increase the loss

(ii) Voltage increase … it causes high dielectric loss

2. Thermal Properties of Insulating Materials:

i. Specific Heat & Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity describes the ability of a material to conduct heat, and the specific heat capacity tells how much

heat
ii. energyPlasticity:
Thermal is absorbed or released depending on the temperature difference and mass.

Pressure on the wires of a wound coil varies under operating conditions because of the expansion and contraction of

theIgnitability:
iii. parts caused by variations in temperature.

Insulating materials exposed to arcing should be non-ignitable. In case they are ignitable, they should be self-

extinguishing,
iv. Softening resistant
Point:T to
hecracking or carbonisation
softening of the material.
point is the temperature at which a material softens beyond some arbitrary
 v. Heat Ageing:

Ageing is, in effect, the wearing out of an insulating material by reducing its resistance to mechanical injury. It increase

rapidly with temperature, approximately doubling for each increase of 10°C to 16°C, depending upon the material.
vi. Thermal Expansion:

Thermal expansion is important because of the mechanical effects caused by thermal expansion due to temperature

3. Chemical Properties of Insulating Materials:

changes. In insulating materials it should be very small.
i. Resistance to External Chemical Effect

Insulating materials should be resistant to oils or liquids, gas fumes, acids and alkalies. The materials should not undergo oxidation and

hydrolysis even under adverse conditions.

ii. Resistance to Chemicals in Soils

Cables laid in the soil can deteriorate by the action of chemicals in soils. The suitability of insulating materials for such
4. Mechanical Properties of Insulating Materials

i. Density

ii. Viscosity

iii. Moisture Absorption

iv. Hardness of Surface

v. Surface Tension

vi. Uniformity
 CHAPTER 5

ELECTRIC COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS

1. Introduction

2. Resistors

3. Capacitors

4. Inductors
 Introduction
Electronics Components

Electronic components are basic discrete devices in any electronic system to use in electronics otherwise different associated fields. These components are

basic elements that are used to design electrical and electronic circuits. These components have a minimum of two terminals which are used to connect to the

circuit. The classification of electronic components can be done based on applications like active, passive, and electromechanical.
In designing an electronic circuit following are taken into consideration:

 Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.

 Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.

Passive components: cannot amplify a signal, and they do not produce mechanical motion.The most common passive electronic components are

Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), multimeters, etc.

resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Active components can amplify a signal. The most emblematic active components are called transistors. A bipolar-junction transistor (BJT) functions like a

current-controlled current source, and a metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) functions like a voltage-controlled current source.

Electromechanical components convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, convert mechanical motion into electrical energy, or facilitate electrical
Electromechanical components

Bells, Alarms, and Horns.

Loudspeakers.

Microphones.

Geophones.

Hydrophones.
 Resistors

A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical

current in an electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific

voltage • forThean active device such as a transistor. Resistors are commonly used to
first use is to limit the flow of current in a circuit.

perform two functions in a circuit.

I=E/R

I = 15 V / 30 Ω

I = 0.5 A
• The second use is to produce a voltage divider.

A to B = 1.5 V

A to C = 7.5 V

A to D = 17.5 V

B to C = 6 V

B to D = 16 V

C to D = 10 V
Resistor

• A component with 2 leads (connections)

• Its function in a circuit is to control the electric current flow through

the circuit

• The greater the resistance value, the less will be the current flow
Appearance

• Resistor value is measured in Ohms (Ω)

• Sometimes in a circuit the symbol for Ohms is not shown:

•
Schematic Symbol
10 Ω may be written as 10R

• 0.1 Ω may be written as 0R1

•
The resistor color code can be used to determine the resistor’s ohmic value and tolerance.
Resistor Colour Coding:

Resistance and tolerance colour bands on a resistor.

Examples of resistors
Resistance and tolerance colour code for resistors.
Example a) Determine the nominal value and tolerance for the
resistor below.
b) What is the minimum resistance value this resistor
can actually have?
c) What is the maximum resistance value this resistor
can actually have?

Solution: Orange =3 White =9 Green =5 Silver = 10%

5

3 ___
9 ___  10   ____ % 10

5
Resistor nominal value = 3910 

= 3,900,000

= 3.9M.
Tolerance = 10%
Solution: continued
 Minimum resistance value:
nominal value – nominal value * tolerance:

 Maximum resistance value:

nominal value + nominal value * tolerance:

 Types of Resistors

Resistors are made in many forms but all belong in either of two groups:

Fixed resistors – are made of metal films, high-resistance wire or carbon composition.

Variable resistors – have a terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a dial, knob, screw, or anything else

appropriate for the application.

Fixed resistors have only one ohmic value, which cannot be changed or adjusted. One type of fixed resistor is the composition

carbon resistor.
Carbon resistors are very popular for most applications because they are inexpensive and readily available in

standard sizes and wattages.

½ Watt 1 Watt 2 Watt

Metal film resistors are another type of fixed resistor. These resistors are superior to carbon resistors because their ohmic value

does not change with age and they have improved tolerance.
Wire-wound resistors are fixed resistors that are made by winding a piece of resistive wire around a ceramic core. These are

used when a high power rating is required.

A 10 W, 10 W wire-wound resistor
 Variable resistors can change their value over a specific range. A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three terminals. A

rheostat has only two terminals.

A potentiometer

A rheostat.
Resistor power rating

The of a resistor is the specification given with a resistor that serves to tell the maximum amount of

power that the resistor can withstand.

Thus, if a resistor has a power rating of ¼ Watts, ¼ Watts is the maximum amount of power that should
Exceeding the power rating causes damage to a resistor.

be fed into the resistor.

Schematic symbols are used to represent various types of fixed resistors.
Review:

1. Resistors are used in two main applications: as voltage dividers and to limit the flow of current in a circuit.

2. The value of fixed resistors cannot be changed.

3. There are several types of fixed resistors such as composition carbon, metal film, and wire-wound.

4. Carbon resistors change their resistance with age or if overheated.

5. Metal film resistors never change their value, but are more expensive than carbon resistors.

6. The advantage of wire-wound resistors is their high power ratings.

Review:

7. Resistors often have bands of color to indicate their resistance value and tolerance.

8. Resistors are produced in standard values. The number of values between 0 and 100 Ω is determined by the tolerance.

9. Variable resistors can change their value within the limit of their full value.

10. A potentiometer is a variable resistor used as a voltage divider.

 The Capacitor

Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive components. In its most basic form, it is composed

of two plates separated by a dielectric. The ability to store charge is the definition of capacitance.

Conductors Dielectric
 The charging process…

Initially uncharged

Fully charged

Source removed

A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

Capacitance

Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage

Rearranging, the amount of charge on a capacitor is determined by the size of the capacitor (C) and the

voltage (V).

220 mC
If a 22mF capacitor is connected to a 10 V source, the charge is
An analogy:

Imagine you store rubber bands in a bottle that is nearly full.

You could store more rubber bands (like charge or Q) in a bigger bottle (capacitance

or C) or if you push them in with more force (voltage or V). Thus,

A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on the two plates. The energy of a

charged capacitor is given by the equation

where

W = the energy in joules

C = the capacitance in farads

V = the voltage in volts

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on three physical characteristics.

C is directly proportional to

the relative dielectric constant

and the plate area.

C is inversely proportional to

the distance between the plates

 Find the capacitance of a 4.0 cm diameter sensor immersed in oil if the plates are

separated by 0.25 mm.

The plate area is

The distance between the plates is

178 pF
Power in a capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the ac cycle and returned to the source during another portion of the cycle.

o
Voltage and current are always 90 out of phase. For this reason, no true power is dissipated by a capacitor, because stored

energy is returned to the circuit.

The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns energy is called reactive power. The unit for reactive power is the VAR (volt-

ampere reactive).
Capacitor types
Mica

Mica capacitors are small with high working voltage. The working voltage is the voltage limit that

cannot be exceeded.
Ceramic disk

Ceramic disks are small nonpolarized capacitors They have relatively high capacitance due to high er.
Electrolytic (two types)

Electrolytic capacitors have very high capacitance but they are not as precise as other types and tend to have more leakage current.

Electrolytic types are polarized.

Al electrolytic

Ta electrolytic

Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor

Variable

Variable capacitors typically have small capacitance values and are usually adjusted manually.

A solid-state device that is used as a variable capacitor is the varactor diode; it is adjusted with an electrical signal.

Symbols for the capacitor: (a) fixed; (b) variable.

Capacitor labeling

Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small capacitors values are frequently stamped on them such as .001 or .01, which have units of

microfarads.

Electrolytic capacitors have larger values, so are read as mF. The unit is usually stamped as mF, but some older ones may be shown as MF or MMF

(MMF is the same as pf (pico-farads)).

 3 4
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x10 (10,000 pF) or 10x10 (100,000 pF) respectively. (Third digit is the multiplier.)

When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the units are picofarads.

What is the value of each capacitor? Both are 2200 pF.

The ferromagnetic materials are those substances

which exhibit strong magnetism in the same direction

of the field, when a magnetic field is applied to it.

Or Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing

magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday’s law of induction. Eddy currents flow

in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field.

A choke, also known as an inductor,

is used to block higher-frequency

while passing direct current (DC) and

lower-frequencies of alternating

current (AC) in an electrical circuit.

VARIABLE INDUCTORS

Variable inductor products are coil products that allow the inductance to be easily varied by

changing the position of the ferrite core in a threaded structure.

The interior is covered by a metal case that is magnetically shielded, while a resin molded

structure protects the windings with a high degree of reliability.

 CHAPTER 6

MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. Introduction

2. Terms associated with magnetic materials

3. Clasification of magnetic materials

4. Properties of magnetic materials

5. Magneto striction
Introduction
Magnet: a device that attracts iron and produces a magnetic field. So that magnetic materials are materials which get easily magnetized in a

magnetic field.

Or Magnetic Materials are those materials in which a state of magnetization can be induced.

• Many of our modern technological devices relay on magnetism and magnetic materials.

Examples: Power generators, transformers, electric motors, radio, television, telephones, computers & components of sound & video

reproduction systems.
Sources of Magnetic Fields
Terms associated with magnetic materials

Magnetic dipole: The two equal and opposite magnetic poles are

separated by a small
Magnetic dipole distance.
moment: The strength of that tiny magnet, the

magnetic dipole moment m, is given by m = NIA, giving the units

Ampere meter square. The magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity and its

direction
magnetic is given
flux by the right-hand
density thumb
(B): The rule.
magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is the number of lines

of force passing through a unit area of material, B. The unit of magnetic induction is the tesla (T).
Magnetic field Intensity (H):

Ratio between the magnetic induction and the permeability of the medium

B 1
i.e. H= ampere m

 B 1
Magnetic Permeability (µ): Ratio of the magnetic induction to the applied magnetic field intensity  = henry m
H
I
 =
H
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ): Ratio between the intensity of magnetization to the applied magnetic field intensity

Intensity of Magnetization(I or M) :

The process of converting a non magnetic material into a magnetic material.Intensity of Magnetization represents the extent to which a

specimen is magnetised when placed in a magnetising field. Or in other words the intensity of magnetisation is defined as the magnetic dipole

moment developed per unit volume when a magnetic material is subjected to magnetising field.

The relative permeability

 B
r = r =
0 or 0 H
 Magnetic materials are classified into two categories,

1. magnetic
Clasification of Without permanent magnetic moments:
materials

i) Diamagnetic materials

2. With permanent magnetic moments:

i) Paramagnetic materials

ii) Ferromagnetic materials

iii) Anti-Ferromagnetic materials

iv) Ferri magnetic materials

 Permanent Dipoles

Ye
s
No

Dia magnetic materials Para, Ferro, Anti ferro,

Ferri magnetic materials

Alignment of dipoles
m Uniform
do
R an

Ferro, Anti ferro, Ferri

Para

me Opp
Sa Direction of dipoles osite

Ferro Anti ferro, Ferri

Magnitudes of dipoles Dif

fer
en
t
me
Sa

Ferri
Anti ferro
 Diamagnetic Materials

• It is a weak form of magnetism

• Diamagnetism is because of orbital magnetic moment.

• No permanent dipoles are present so net magnetic moment is zero.

s
rtie
pe

•
Pro

Persists only when external field is applied.

• The number of orientations of electronic orbits is such that the vector sum of the magnetic moments is zero.

• Dipoles are induced by change in orbital motion of electrons due to applied magnetic field.
 No Applied Applied

Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
none
s
rtie
pe
Pro
 • External field will cause a rotation action on the individual electronic orbits.

• The external magnetic field produces induced magnetic moment which is due to orbital magnetic moment.

• Induced magnetic moment is always in opposite direction of the applied magnetic field.

• So magnetic induction in the specimen decreases.

s
rtie

•
pe

Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.

Pro

• Repels magnetic lines of force.

 • Diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature and applied magnetic field strength.

• -5
Susceptibility is of the order of -10 .

• Relative permeability is less than one.

• It is present in all materials, but since it is so weak it can be observed only when other types of
s
rtie
pe

magnetism are totally absent.

Pro

• Examples: Bi, Zn, gold, H2O, alkali earth elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr), superconducting elements in

superconducting state.
 Paramagnetic Materials
• Possess permanent dipoles.

• If the orbital's are not completely filled or spins not balanced, an overall small magnetic moment may exist.

• i.e. paramagnetism is because of orbital and spin magnetic moments of the electron.

• In the absence of external magnetic field

s
rtie
pe

•
Pro

all dipoles are randomly oriented

• so net magnetic moment is zero.

• Spin alignment is random.

• The magnetic dipoles do not interact

 No Applied Applied

Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

random

aligned
s
rtie
pe
Pro
 • In presence of magnetic field the

• material gets feebly magnetized i.e. the material allows few magnetic lines of force to pass through it.

• Relative permeability µr >1 (barely, ≈ 1.00001 to 1.01).

• The orientation of magnetic dipoles depends on temperature and applied field.

s
rtie

• Susceptibility is independent of applied mag. field & depends on temperature

pe
Pro

• C is Curie constant
 • With increase in temperature susceptibility decreases.

• Susceptibility is small and positive.

• These materials are used in lasers.

• Paramagnetic property of oxygen is used in NMR technique for medical diagnose.

s
rtie
pe

• -5 -2
Pro

The susceptibility range from 10 to 10 .

• Examples: alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb), transition metals, Al, Pt, Mn, Cr etc.
 Ferromagnetic Materials
• Permanent dipoles are present so possess net magnetic moment

• Origin for magnetism in Ferro mag. Materials is due to Spin magnetic moment of electrons.

• Material shows magnetic properties even in the absence of external magnetic field.
s

•
rtie

Possess spontaneous magnetization.

pe
Pro

• Spontaneous magnetization is because of interaction between dipoles called EXCHANGE COUPLING.

 No Applied Applied

Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

aligned

aligned
s
rtie
pe
Pro
 • When placed in external mag. field it strongly attracts magnetic lines of force.

• All spins are aligned parallel & in same direction.

• Susceptibility is large and positive, it is given by Curie Weiss Law

• C is Curie constant & θ is Curie temperature.

•
s

When temp is greater than curie temp then the material gets converted in to paramagnetic.
rtie
pe

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Material gets divided into small regions called domains.

• They possess the property of HYSTERESIS.

• Examples: Fe, Co, Ni.

 Even when H = 0, the dipoles tend to strongly align

over small patches.

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When H is applied, the domains align to produce a large

net magnetization.
Curie Temperature

 The temperature above (Tc) which ferromagnetic material become paramagnetic.

 Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic is ordered and above it, disordered.

 The saturation magnetization goes to zero at the Curie temperature.

Antiferro magnetic Material

• The spin alignment is in antiparallel manner.

• So net magnetic moment is zero.

• Susceptibility depends on temperature.

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Susceptibility is small and positive.

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• Initially susceptibility increases with increase in temperature and beyond Neel temperature the susceptibility

decreases with temperature.

• At Neel temperature susceptibility is maximum.

• Examples: FeO, MnO, Cr2O3 and salts of transition elements.

Ferri-magnetic Materials

Classification of Ferri-magnetic Materials

Ferrimagnetic Materials

Cubic Ferrites Hexagonal Ferrites Garnets

MFe2O4 AB12O19 M3Fe5O12

 • Special type of ferro and antiferromagnetic material.

• Generally oxides in nature.

• Ionic in nature

• Ceramic in nature so high resistivity (insulators)

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The spin alignment is antiparallel but different magnitude.

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• So they possess net magnetic moment.

• Also called ferrites.

• General form MFe2O4 where M is a divalent metal ion.

• Susceptibility is very large and positive.

•
Magnetostriction
• Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials which causes them to expand or contract in response to a magnetic field.

This effect allows magnetostrictive materials to convert electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy. As a magnetic field is applied

to the material, its molecular dipoles and magnetic field boundaries rotate to align with the field. This causes the material to strain and

elongate. Energy produced in this effect is called Magnetostriction Energy.

• The deformation is different along different crystal directions & the change in dimension depends on nature of the material.
Magnetic materials applications
1. Ferrite applications

Ferrites Being Ferro-magnetic

Used as transformer cores

Used as induction cores, antennas for medium and long wave broad casting, electronic tuning, auto frequency control, FM,

switching etc.

 Since ferrites have a domains & hysteresis loop they are used as memory elements for rapid storage and retrieval of digital

information by switching the direction of magnetization in very small toroidal cores.

 Garnets (Y3Fe5O12) are useful in microwave applications.

 Magnetic recording uses ferrite material in powder form.

 Ferrites can be used as magnets.

2) Magnetic Storage

Reading Process

Writing Process

Storage of data( Tapes, Floppy and Magnetic

Disc Drives)

3) Transformer

4) Motors