CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATIONS OF DATA

NELDA JIMENEA-GARCIA, Ph.D.

Faculty, Science and Math Department
Pangasinan State University-Bayambang Campus
Bayambang, Pangasinan
 Objectives

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1.Be able to present the results of your collected
data.
2.Make good analysis of the tabulated or
graphically presented data.
3.Make effective interpretation of the
data/finding/results.
4.Draw implications or inferences and generations
from the analysis and interpretation of findings
 Presentation of Data

• Presentation is the process of

organizing data into logical, sequential,
and meaningful categories and
classifications to make them amenable
to study and interpretation.
• It should be clear and scholarly done
and may come in the form of tables,
figures or charts.
 Three Ways of Presenting Data

1. Textual - statements with numerals or numbers

that serve as supplements to tabular presentation.
2. Tabular - a systematic arrangement of related idea
in which classes of numerical facts or data are given
each row and their subclasses are given each a
column in order to present the relationships of the
sets or numerical facts or data in a definite,
compact and understandable form.
3. Graphical – a chart representing the quantitative
variations or changes of variables in pictorial or
diagrammatic form.
 Two general rules regarding the
independence of tables and text

1. The table should be so constructed that

it enables the reader to comprehend the
data presented without referring to the
text.
2. The text should be so written that it
allows the reader to understand the
argument presented without referring
to the table. (Campbell, Ballou and
Slade, 1990).
 Types of Graphs and Charts

1. Bar graphs
2. Linear graphs
3. Pie graphs
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts
 Analysis of Data

• Analysis is a separation of a whole into its

constituent parts (Merriam-Webster, 2012)
• It is the process of breaking up the whole study
into its constituent parts of categories according to
the specific questions under the statement of the
problem. (Calderon, 1993).
• It refers to the skill of the researcher in describing,
delineating similarities and differences,
highlighting the significant findings or data and
ability to extract information or messages out of
the presented data.
Two Ways of Data Analysis
1.Qualitative Analysis – is not based
on precise measurement and
quantitative claims.
Examples:
a) Social analysis;
b) From the biggest to the smallest class;
c) Most important to the least important;
d) Ranking of students according to grades.
Two Ways of Data Analysis
2. Quantitative Analysis – is
employed on data that have been
assigned some numerical value.
It can range from the examination of
simple frequencies to the description
of events or phenomenon using
descriptive statistics, and to the
investigation of correlation and
causal hypothesis using various
statistical tests.
 Interpretation of Data

• Interpretation is the explanation or

suggestions inferred from the data,
their implications but not conclusions.
• This section answers the question, “So
what?” in relation to the results of the
study. What do the results of the study
mean?
• This part is, perhaps, the most critical
aspect of the research report.
 Interpretation of Data

• It is often the most difficult to write

because it is the least structured.

• This section demands perceptiveness

and creativity from the researcher.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?

1. Tie up the results of the study in both

theory and application by pulling
together the:
a) conceptual/theoretical framework;
b) the review of literature; and
c) the study’s potential significance for
application.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?
2. Examine, summarize, interpret and
justify the results; then, draw
inferences. Consider the following:
a) Conclude or summarize.
This technique enables the reader to
get the total picture of the findings in
summarized form, and helps orient
the reader to the discussion that
follows.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?

b) Interpret
Questions on the meaning of
the findings, the methodology, the
unexpected results and the
limitations and shortcomings of the
study should be answered and
interpreted.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?
c) Integrate
This is an attempt to put the
pieces together.
Often, the results of a study are
disparate and do not seem to “hang
together.” In the discussion, attempt
to bring the findings together to
extract meaning and principles.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?
d) Theorize
When the study includes a number
of related findings, it occasionally
becomes possible to theorize.
1. Integrate your findings into a principle;
2. Integrate a theory into your findings;
and
3. Use these findings to formulate an
original theory.
 How do we interpret the
result(s) of our study?

e) Recommend or apply alternatives

In deducing Interpretation from
statistical analysis, the following
key words may be useful:
1. Table _____ presents the…
2. Table _____ indicates the…
3. As reflected in the table, there was…
4. As observed, there was indeed…
5. Delving deeper into the figures…
6. The illustrative graph above/below shows that…
7. In explaining this result, it can be stated that…
8. Is significantly related to…
9. Is found to be determinant of…
10. Registered positive correlation with…
In deducing Interpretation from
statistical analysis, the following
key words may be useful:
11. Is revealed to influence…
12. Has significant relationship with…
13. Is discovered to be a factor of…
14. In relation with the result of __________, it
may be constructed that…
15. And in viewing in this sense, it can be
stated that…
16. The result establishes the fact that…
17. This finding suggests that…
18. With this result, the researcher developed
an impression that…
 Guidelines in the Presentation,
Analysis, and Interpretation of Data:

1. The chapter is organized and divided into

several main components or topics, each of
which is titled according to the sub-problem or
hypothesis statement.
2. Present only relevant data.
3. In reporting data, choose the medium that will
present them effectively.
4. Presenting tables that can be presented as well
in a few sentences in the text must be avoided
 Guidelines in the Presentation,
Analysis, and Interpretation of Data:

5. The textual presentation should

supplement or expand the contents of
tables and charts, rather than duplicate
them.
6. Only objective data embodied in tables are
made the bases of discussion.
7. The analysis of the data should be objective
and logical.
 Guidelines in the Presentation,
Analysis, and Interpretation of Data:

8. In analyzing and interpreting data, point out those

that are consistent or inconsistent with the theory
presented in the study’s theoretical framework.
9. In reporting statistical tests of significance,
include information concerning the value of the
test, the degree of freedom, the probability level
and the direction of the effect.
10.The findings are compared and contrasted with
that of other previous studies; and interpretations
are made thereof.
 Presentation of Findings

Two forms of communicating your findings in

research:
•Verbal – describes and narrates to readers
what the researcher has done and the results
that he or she has obtained.
•Symbolic – uses graphic representation,
tables or statistical values.
Organization of your Presentation

• The organization of the presentation and

interpretation of findings vary according to the
research method used.
• In descriptive research, especially the survey
type, the presentation of results follow a pattern.
• The findings presented will follow the sequence
of the sub-problems raised in Chapter 1.
• It would be a good idea if reports assist in the
analysis, interpretation and clarification of the
next materials.
Organization of your Presentation

• Properly chosen, carefully drawn, and accurately

presented, they can make many of the statements
appearing in the body of the report more
meaningful.
• Do not present your findings by recasting your sub-
problems in Chapter 1.
• Remember that your whole Chapter 4 is the
exposition of the answers of findings to your
research questions specially stated in Chapter 1.
Your answers become the subheadings of your
Chapter 4
 Examples:

• For Research Problem 1. What is the profile of the

respondents in terms of age, sex, educational
attainment, civil status and position?
• Your subheading in Chapter 4 should be: 1. Profile of
the Respondents In Terms of Age, Sex, Educational
Attainment, Civil Status and Position
• For research Problem No. 2 What is the leadership
styles of the local government officials in Manila as
assessed by the officials themselves and their
subordinates, using the following five dimensions of
McPhee Andrewartha’s Rating scale: 2.1 Focus,2.2
Emphasis 2.3 Relationship, 2.4 timing and 2.5 Thinking
 Methods of Presenting Data

• Tables and Graphs are both ways to

organize and arrange data so that it is
more easily understood by the viewer.
• Tables and graphs are related in the
sense that the information used in
tables is frequently also used for the
basis of graphs
 Methods of Presenting Data

• When designing table, keep the format clear

and simple.
• Line up decimal places, note units clearly, use
a large enough typeface and construct a clean
orderly arrangement of rows and columns.
• Bar graphs are an excellent way to show the
results that are one time, that are not
continuous—especially samplings such as
surveys and inventories.
• Bar graphs are used to get an overall idea or
trends in responses which categories get,
many versus few responses
 Methods of Presenting Data

• Bars in a graph should be wider than the spaces

between them.
• All bars should be of equal width, and all spaces
including the space between the axis and the first bar,
should be equal of width.
• Bars should be neither very thin nor very wide.
• Use the same color for all the bars in a graph that are in
a single data set.
• Use different fill colors for positive and negative values.
• Line graph is most useful in displaying data or
information that change continuously over time
 Methods of Presenting Data

Tabular Presentation

Tables can be classified according to their

dimensions (number of variables)

One way table – data classified according to only

one variable.

Two-way table –shows the relationship between

a given variable and two other variables.

Three-way table – shows the relationship of one

variable with three other different variables.
 Parts of a Table

• Title – must be clear, short, and

should describe the contents and
answer the questions what, how,
where and when.

• Stubs- contains the headings of all the

rows and must be brief and
informative.

• Body – central portion which presents

the numerical data.
 Parts of a Table
• Boxhead – contains the column
headings and must be brief and
informative.

• Footnote- contain explanations

concerning an individual figure in the
row or column
 Presenting the Table

• Tables are numbered consecutively in Arabic numeral.

• Table number should be written at the top and the
caption should be placed at the bottom just right
above the table box.
• In typing tables, never cut table in two pages. You
may decrease the size of the font of your table to fit
the size in a short coupon bond or you may use
landscape so that you will have one table in a page.
• Avoid enlarging the font size of your table in order to
fit in such page.
 Pictorial Presentation of Data

Graphical presentation is appropriate when

there is a continuum in the data so that the
points representing paired observations of
two variables maybe connected by a line.
Scatter grams are appropriate in showing
the extent of association between two
variables in the data when no clear
continuum exists.
 Pictorial Presentation of Data

A bar chart is used to represent the

magnitude of variables. A bar chart can be
extended to show the composition of the
total magnitude represented by the bars by
segmenting each bar in proportion to the
magnitudes of the different components.
 Pictorial Presentation of Data
Pie chart is a simple method of representing the
composition of sum total such as the percentage
of an aggregate falling into different categories.
In a pie chart, a circle is divided into segments
such that the size of each segment is
proportional to the frequency or magnitude of
that class.
Pictogram – portraying data by means of picture
symbols. Quantities are represented by
appropriate pictures or identical symbols.
 Analysis of Data or Findings

• In analyzing data, stress only those important

result that gives information that could answer
the problem you raised or posed in your study
which you stated in Chapter 1.
• You highlight only those important and unique
findings.
• You have to be consistent and coherent in your
approach as well as logical, based on certain
academic conventions.
 Interpretation of Findings/Results,
Implications and Inferences

• Sufficient data should be used to justify your

inferences or generalizations.
• The implications suggested by the data should
be explained and discussed thoroughly in this
portion of your research.
• The data analysis involves comparing values
on the dependent measures in statistical
cases.
 Interpretation of Findings/Results,
Implications and Inferences

• In the non statistical approach, these

comparisons usually involve visual inspection
of data.
• Evaluation depends on projecting from
baseline data what findings would be like in
the future if some variables were not
experimented.
-Summarize findings in text and illustrate
them, if appropriate, with figures and
tables.

-In text, describe each of your results,

pointing the reader to observations that
are most relevant.
-Provide a context, such as by
describing the question that was
addressed by making a particular
observation.

-include observations that are not

presented in a formal figure or table,
if appropriate.
-Use past tense when you refer
to your results, and put
everything in a logical order.

-Either place figures and tables

within the text of the result, or
include them in the back of the
report.
Each table must be titled,
numbered consecutively and
complete with heading.

Each figure and table must be

sufficiently complete that it
could stand on its own.
 Discussion
•Use reasoning and logic in discussing the data.

•If your results differ from your expectations,

explain why that may have happened. If your
results agree, then describe the theory that the
evidence supported.

•Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected,

or if you cannot make a decision with confidence.
Refer to work done by specific
individuals (including yourself) in past
tense.

Refer to generally accepted facts and

principles in present tense.

What do the results mean? How do they relate

to the objectives of the project? To what
extent have they resolved the problem?
Some pointers in discussing the results

1. Data should be discussed in logical order

that is consistent with the major
objectives or focus of the research
problem.
2. All supporting data required for tackling
the major research problem should be
discussed before presenting the complex
tables embodying the relationship
among several variables.
Some pointers in discussing the results

3. The discussion should draw

attention to the main points or
relationships illustrated in the
table.
4. Discuss the observable trend of the
data for the total group and then
dwell upon the outstanding trends
of the data for the subgroups.
 Interpretation of Findings

Interpretation means an adequate

exposition of the true meaning of the
material presented in terms of the
purposes of the study being reported.

It throws light on the real significance

of the material in the context where it
is found.
 Interpretation of Findings

The purpose of interpretation is to search

for the broader meaning of answers to
research questions by linking them to
other available knowledge or to look for
the explanation of the observed
relationship.
 The Purpose of Generalization
The purpose of generalization is to
indicate the extent to which they could
be applied to the population or to other
similar groups.

Do not present a superficial interpretation.

It is necessary to suggest why results
came out as they did, focusing on the
mechanisms behind the observations.
 The Purpose of Generalization

• Interpret your data in appropriate

depth. This means that when you
explain a phenomenon you must
describe mechanisms that may
account for the observation.
 REFERENCES

1. Adanza, Estela, 1995. Research Methods. Rex

Book Store. Manila, Philippines.
2. Aquino, Gaudencio, 1992. Fundamentals of
Research. National Book Store, Manila,
Philippines.
3. Bailey, Kenneth, 1994. Methods of Social
Research. 3rd ed. The Free Press, NY.
4. Day, Robert T., 1989. How to write and publish a
Scientific Paper. 3rd ed. Oryx Press, New York.

5. Fonollera, Maura B. 1993. Developing Competencies in

Research Writing. Melfon Publising Inc. Philippines

6. Quiamco, Madeline B. (undated) Introduction to

Scientific Writing. Handouts and References in
Scientific Writing and Presentation Skills Course, IRRI.
7. Moreland, Neil(Undated). Writing for Publication:
Some Guidelines. http://www.google.com .

8. Rudner, Lawrence M. & William D. Schafer (1999).

How to write a scholarly research report. Practical
Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 6(13). Retrieved
February 14, 2006 from
ttp://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp.