Engr.

Jawad Ahmed
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 POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is semicrystalline polyester commonly used in

packaging and fiber applications.

C10H8O4

4
APPLICATIONS

5
 INTRODUCTION
ELECTRON BEAM IRRADIATION

6
 Introduction

Irradiation cross-linking is an
excellent way to improve the
properties of polymers:
mechanical behavior
chemical stability
thermal performance
flame resistance

Crosslinking of Polymer by Irradiation

7
 Types of Radiation

 There are two major types of radiation.

1. Electromagnetic radiation like the -
ray and X-ray
2. The other is the corpuscular ray like
the α-ray and electron beam.
 Presently, electron beam is most
commonly used in radiation chemistry.
The -ray, which is discharged when
its radioisotope (60Co) decays, is also
used as it has high penetration.
8
9
INTRODUCTION
For the crosslinking electron beam is considered energy efficient technology as well it requires very
short time to irradiated minimal (seconds) but this technology is totally depending on the level of
electron beam exposure for the higher degree of crosslinking.

Crosslinking of Polymer by Irradiation

Irradiation

10
INTRODUCTION
Electron beam irradiation is considered energy efficient technology as well it requires
very short time for crosslinking.
Efficient Crosslinking depends on Polymer material, Dose range and additives.
Electron beam irradiation produces the free radicals which usually helpful for
crosslinking.

11

Crosslinking of Polymer by Irradiation

INTRODUCTION
 Electron beam technology is most popular for to improve polymer
properties.

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CROSSLINKING
 In the process of crosslinking the material absorbs
radiation energy.
 Chemical bonds are broken and free radicals are formed
which, in the next step, react to new chemical bonds.
 Thus an extremely resistant ‘network’ is formed. Since it
is the finished plastic product which is modified in this
way, it is even possible to vary the degree of crosslinking
within one component by shielding parts of the product
during irradiation.
 The irradiation of raw materials is also possible.

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PET

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 Adem, 2016
 EBI dose range 50-3000 kGy on
biaxially oriented PET film
 Dose rate: 4.48 kGy min1

 Effect of the irradiation of PET at two

temperatures,
 Below Tg
 Above Tg

20
 METHODOLOGY
Adem, 2016

21
 Inherent viscosity are displayed. It is clear that the Inherent viscosity
of the material decreased with the increase in dose.

Inherent viscosity vs dose for the PET irradiated at 0, 100, 300, 500, 1000 and 2000 kGy22
Melting Temperature after irradiation at ambient and 100 degree Celsius
temperature.

23
Percentage of Crystallinity after irradiation at ambient temperature and
100 degree Celsius.

Percentage of crystallinity vs dose in the first heating run (left) and in the second
heating run (right) for PET irradiated at ambient temperature (empty circles) and at 100
24
C (filled circles).
 Adem, 2016

Conclusion of Study
Air/ Dose
PET Type
Vacuume Range
Dose Rate Temperature Dose Effects on properties

*Melting temperature slightly

decreased
*Significantly increased
Biaxially Ambient crystallization temperature
50 – 3000 4.48 Increasing
oriented PET Air
kGy kGy/min
temperature
dose * Stress and strain at break strongly
to 100 C
film reduced
* Young's Modulus slightly increased
* No gel was formed cause decrease in
molecular weight

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26
Effect on PET Flame Retardency
EBI range 50-3000 kGy on biaxially oriented PET film
Dose rate: 4.48 kGy min1

Co-polymerized phosphorus FR-PET fabrics

were provided by Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology

Molecular formula

Sensitizer trimethylolpropane triacrylate(TMPTA)

Shanghai Fangruida Chemical Company,
Phenol Tetrachloroethane 27
Shanhai Guoyao Chemical Reagent Company.
Shifeng Zhu, 2015

28
 FR-PET fabric was difficult to ignite and was accompanied with flaming drips upon
combustion as shown in.

 In case of irradiated FR-PET/TMPTA fabrics, when the irradiation dose was above the 90
kGy the fabric was no dripping but unexpected it burned up until to the clamp with the
flaming and char forming as seen.

Combustion state of samples after vertical burning test (a) FR-PET fabric and (b) FR-PET
fabric irradiated at 120 kGy.
29
Gel content of PET flame-retardant fabric
 It is known that PET is difficult to be irradiation crosslinked for the existence of benzene ring and
the gel point is not found until the dose is higher than 1 MGy.

 When impregnated with sensitizer TMPTA, the gel content was 5.94% at the lower dose of 90
kGy and it arrived at the highest level 13.01% when the dose increased to150 kGy the gel % is
decreased.

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 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Functional groups
 The related study indicated that flame-retardant mechanism of the phosphorus-

containing compound is due to the breakdown of C–O–P group to form the

carbonaceous chars [8].
 It can be concluded that under irradiation, the group C–O–P was broken down in
advance. So the flame retardation of FR-PET fabric disappeared upon combustion.
Table : Contents of functional groups of the FR-PET fabric before and after irradiation.

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 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Conclusion of Study

Air/
Dose
PET Type Additive Vacuu Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range
me

* gel content slight decrease

PET * no dripping
* burned up with the flaming
flame- Sensitizer 90 -180 Increasing
Air Ambient * char forming
retardant (trimethylolpropane triacrylate) kGy dose
* effective flame-retarded group C
fabric O–P broken
* Well crosslinking

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 Electron beam Irradiation on PET

Effect on Gamma and Ebeam irradiation on calendered

cord fabrics

Electron Beam Irradiation range upto 80 kGy

on PET fabrics (PET (1670 dtex))

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 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Ayse Aytac,
2010
 Effect on Breaking Strength (N)

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 Breaking Strength (N)

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AYSE AYTAC, 2010
Breaking strength

37
AYSE AYTAC, 2010

 Elongation at Break

38
AYSE AYTAC, 2010

39
 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Conclusion of Study

Air/
Dose
PET Type Additive Vacuu Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range
me

Ambient * Tensile strength

Natural rubber
PET fabrics 0 - 80 tempera decreased
Based compounds Air Increasing
(PET (1670 dtex)) kGy ture *cords slightly
for calendering
decreased for PET

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41
BEATRIZ R. NOGUEIRA, 2009
It can be seen, there were significant increased up to 18 % in tensile strength at
break of PETmet/LDPE irradiated with 45, 60, 75 and 105 kGy, but for the other
irradiation doses there were no significant difference.

Figure Tensile strength at break as a function of electron-beam irradiation for the 42

structure PETmet/LDPE.
BEATRIZ R. NOGUEIRA, 2009
In terms of elongation at break, the PETmet/LDPE showed an increase (p<0.05) up
to 15% at 45 kGy and ca. 6% at 60, 75 and 120 kGy.

Percent elongation at break as a function of electron-beam irradiation for the structure43

PETmet/LDPE.
BEATRIZ R. NOGUEIRA, 2009
The results showed significant differences in penetration resistance of the films for
all range dose studied. As it can be seen, the original penetration resistance of the
film increased up to 14 % as a result of the radiation doses applied except for 30
kGy that presented a slight decrease of 3 %.

44
Figure Penetration resistance as a function of electron-beam irradiation for the structure
PETmet/LDPE.
BEATRIZ R. NOGUEIRA, 2009
In the sealing properties, electron-beam irradiation caused significant decrease. The
decrease of sealability of PETmet/LDPE in the dose range studied was 8–26%
except for 60 kGy that did not showed significant differences.

Figure 4. Seal strength as a function of electron-beam irradiation for the structure 45

PETmet/LDPE
 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Conclusion of Study

Air/
Dose
PET Type Additive Vacuu Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range
me

*Significant increased up to 18 %
*Elongation at break, increase upto
Ambient 15%
multilayer
0 - 120 tempera *penetration resistance of the film
structure - Air Increasing
kGy ture increased up to 14 %
PETmet/LDPE
*Sealing strength, significant
decrease

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47
VITOR M. OLIVEIRA, 2009
Effect on Tensil strength at break
 After Eight days irradiation: no significant differences in tensile strength at break, at doses
25, 30 and 45 kGy, but for the other irradiation doses an increase up to 16% was found.
 After six months irradiation: the tensile strength of the PET/PP film increased at the dose
range of 5–15 kGy up to 13%, at 90 kGy ca. 7% and 105 kGy ca. 9%.

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VITOR M. OLIVEIRA, 2009
Effect on elongation at break
 After Eight days irradiation: Increase up to 15% at lower doses (5–30 kGy), at 75 kGy
24% and 105 kGy 32%.
 After Six months irradiation: Still higher, as indicated by an increase between 22% and
41% (5, 15 kGy 41%), except for the dose range of 75–120 kGy (rise 90 kGy 12%; loss:
75 kGy ca.7, 105 kGy 8%).

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VITOR M. OLIVEIRA, 2009

Effect on Penetration Resistance

 After Eight days irradiation: Slightly increase of 5%.
 After six months irradiation : Decrease lower than 10% after irradiation

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VITOR M. OLIVEIRA, 2009
 The sealing properties is affected by irradiation it can be seen, the loss of
sealability of the PET/PE in the dose range of up to 25 kGy was by 65–92%
eight days after irradiation, and by 43–88% six months
after irradiation in the dose range of up to 15 kGy.

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 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Conclusion of Study

Air/
Dose
PET Type Additive Vacuu Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range
me

*no significant
differences in tensile
strength after 8 days
irradiation
•increase in tensile
Ambient strength after 6 months
0 -120 tempera
PET/PP - Air
kGy ture
Increasing irradiation
•* increase in elongation
at break after 8 days
irradiation 52
•* increase in elongation
at break after 6 months
53
 Literature Review

Burillo, 2007
Researcher changes the electron beam irradiation doses upto 15 Mgy on the
Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
On the PET at dose rate of 1.65MGy/h and investigated .
Investigated by:
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
Molecular weight measurement (MWM)
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS)
Scanning electron microscopy(SEM)
Irradiated samples showed a decrease of molecular wt: with a minimum at 5
Mgy.

54
Effect on Molecular weight
Pellets of commercial PET with molecular weight (Mv)
of 103,600 were irradiated under nitrogen atmosphere in a
sealed polyethylene bag at doses from 0.2 to 15 MGy.
PET films, from God Fellow Co., biaxially oriented, with a molecular
weight of 52,200 were irradiated at doses from 0.2 to 15 MGy.
All samples were irradiated in a Van de Graaff accelerator of 2 MeV
Temperature range: 22-80 ◦C
Dose rate of 1.65 MGy/h

PET Pellet PET Film

Mv:103,600 Mv:
52,200

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Changes in molecular weight of PET films and Pellets by EBI
Contact Angle

 Liquid vapor
Liquidvapor interface 
meets a solid surface of
PET decreasing by the
increasing the dose

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PET Properties After Irradiation
The melting point of samples decreases with increase in radiation dose.
There are no differences in film samples irradiated in air or vacuum, due to the
high dose rate of the electron beam.
The Tg of samples also decreases with degradation of samples.

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 Electron beam Irradiation on PET

Effect of Crystallinity
SEM micrograph shows of the surface of the PET films without irradiation,
little crystals of different sizes were observed.
At 15 MGy of irradiation the crystals are destroyed and we observe spots
with round or elliptic shapes.

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 Ebeam Irradiation on PET
Conclusion of Study

Dose
PET Type Additive Air/Vacuume Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range

* decrease of molecular
*PET Pellets weight
minimum
Mv = 103,600 Air and 0.2 to * chain scission
- 22–80 C at
* PET films vaccum 15 MGy *Crystallinity decreases with
5 Mgy
Mv = 52,200 increase in dose

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Zenkiewicz, 2004
Researcher studied, Effect of the EBI on the tensile strength, elongation and
tear resistance for packaging films made of:
low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
polypropylene (BOPP)
polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

It was found that the electron irradiation caused an increase in the tear
resistance of the LDPE film at doses of up to 100 kGy
Significant decrease and even loss of the tear resistance of the films of BOPP
PET were observed at doses already below 25 kGy which indicates that the
modified BOPP and PET films can hardly be used in packaging.

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004
 Tensile strength at break in machine direction

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004
 Tensile strength at break in transverse direction

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004

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M. ZENKIEWICZ, 2004

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 Air/
Dose
PET Type Processed Vacuu Temp: Dose Effects on properties
Range
me

The film was *significant decrease and

formed by even loss of the tear
*PET with extrusion and then Ambient resistance
molecular weight oriented by tempera
Air Increasing
of 2.5*10000 machine direction ture
and transverse *Hardly used in packaging
direction

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CHANGCHENG HE, 2003
 Contact Angle

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CHANGCHENG HE, 2003

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CROSSLINKING VS SCISSION
 As the hydrogen in the backbone of an organic
polymer is replaced with heavier substituents, its
tendency to crosslink decreases and its tendency
to scission increases.

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EFFECT OF ADDITIVES
There are four main ty'pes of additives whose effect on irradiation of polymeric
systems needs to be considered

 1. Crosslinking agents: these are typically multifunctional monomers (such as

di-and triacrylates) that reduce the dose required for crosslinking .

 2. Degradation agents: primaril¥ oxygen; it degrades polYmers via tile

formation 0 peroxy radicals

 3. Protective agents: basically, there are two types of r: rotectors- the anti-rads,
which act as energy acceptors such as pyrene and other aromatic hydrocarbons),
and ree radical scavengers or anti-oxidants, e.g., phenols, which protect the
polymer via peroxy or carbon centred radicaf reactions

 4. Neutral additives: frequently, mineral powders or fibres are added to

polymers; many of these have no effect on irradiation of pofymers

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ENVRIONMENTAL FACTOR (AIR)
 Oxygen
 Initiation
RH -'VV\!'. R- + HH- + RH • R- + H2
R- + O2 • R02-
• Crosslinking
R- + R- • R·R
(not favoured in air/oxygen)
• Degradation
R0
2- , ROOH -----...Chain scission, degradation,
alcohols, ketones
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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
CROSSLINKING OF PET /
POLYCARBONATE
 Additives
 Crosslinking coagent
 Polymer blends PET/other Polymer

 Dose irradiation

 Environemntal factors
 Temperature
 Air (Oxygen)

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ADDITIVES (CROSSLINKING COAGENT)
 Crosslinking agent can serve to reverse the MW damage
caused by hydrolysis of polyesters or can modify the rheology
of the polymer to increase its melt strength.

 Crosslinking agent have at least two functional groups capable

of addition reactions with the terminal hydroxyl (OH) or
carboxyl (COOH) groups of the polyester resin.

 In principle, any bifunctional (or higher functionality)

chemical that reacts fast with the end groups of
polycondensates may be used for crosslinking.
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TRADITIONAL
 Chain extenders, on the other hand, can be simply added
to the polymer during extrusion (single- or twin screw-
extrusion or compounding).

 ‘Traditional’ chain extenders for PET are compounds

such as
 Bisanhydrides
 Bisoxazolines
 bisepoxides, etc.
which react with either –OH or –COOH end groups, or both.

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 Chain extenders are thus very useful for building
molecular weight during melt processing.

 The latter can upgrade PET by increasing the intrinsic

viscosity of bottle-grade PET, for example, from ∼0.8
dL/g to greater than 1.0 dL/g.

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CROSSLINKER
Crosslinker can be devided into two main catogaries which
are commercially available for PET.

 Bifunctional chain
 Promote linear chain extension

 tri- and tetra-functional

 Promote chain branching

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BIFUNCTIONAL MOLECULES
 Bifunctional molecules:
 Diepoxides
 Diisocyanates
 dianhydrides or bis(oxazoline)s
Use to increase the molecular weight of PET by reacting with
its terminal groups.

 Triphenyl phosphite , as well as diimidodiepoxides [5],

have also proved to react efficiently with PET while
promoting molecular weight enhancement.

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THE MOST COMMON CROSSLINKER
 The most common chain extenders are the dianhydrides
(also known as tetracarboxylic dianhydrides). The most
common of these is pyromellitic dianhydride
(PMDA).

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 Trimellitic anhydride (TMA) is efficient crosslinker,
which gives rise to branching of the PET structure.

 Multifunctional epoxies react quickly with the terminal

carboxylic acid groups of PET but can also react with
the film former and the silane coupling agent on glass
fibre reinforcements.

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PYROMELLITIC DIANHYDRIDE (PMDA)

Reaction of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) chain extender with

PET end groups (hydroxyl and carboxylic acid groups) to give85
chain extension and branching of PET
PYROMELLITIC DIANHYDRIDE (PMDA)
 Pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) is generally used in PET at
concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 2 %.

 Reactive extrusion of PET with PMDA has been reported by

Incarnato et al. These authors used PMDA to increase the
molecular weight of PET industrial scraps sourced from a
PET processing plant.

 They found that concentrations of PMDA between 0.50 and

0.75 % promote chain extension reactions that lead to an
increase of MW, a broadening of the MWD and branching
phenomena which modify the PET scrap in such a way that
makes it suitable for film blowing and blow moulding
processes.
86
PYROMELLITIC DIANHYDRIDE (PMDA)
 A dramatic improvement in the performance of PMDA in chain
extension of PET is possible if the PMDA is added to the extruder
in a concentrate using a polycarbonate (PC) carrier.

 The reason being that if PMDA is compounded in a PET carrier

resin then a premature reaction results leading to ultra-high MW
PET and gel problems.

 Alternatively, if PMDA is compounded in a polyolefin carrier

then degradation of the polyolefin occurs; whereas, when PMDA
is compounded in a polycarbonate carrier there is no premature
reaction because PC contains no acid end groups (rather, –OH end
groups instead).

 Furthermore, PC is quite miscible with PET. 87

APPLICATIONS (PMDA)

 Enhancement of the intrinsic viscosity of PET and PBT

 Reactive extrusion of PET and PBT

 Melt strength enhancement of PET and PBT for the production

of blown polyester foams

 As a melt viscosity and melt-strength-enhancing additive for

modifying PET for film blowing and extrusion blow moulding
applications

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APPLICATIONS (PMDA)

 Tensile strength enhancement of PET and PBT for strapping

applications without the need for solid-state polycondensation .

 Upgrading of recycled PET flake to resin suitable for bottling

applications (>0.80 dL/g).

 As an additive to reduce the time necessary for solid-phase

polymerization of PET and PBT resins.

 To increase the elongational viscosity of PET and PBT resins by

facilitating extended and branched architectures .

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PHENYLENEBISOXAZOLINE (PBO)

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PHENYLENEBISOXAZOLINE (PBO)
 1,3-phenylenebisoxazoline (1,3-PBO)
 1,4-phenylenebisoxazoline (1,4- PBO)
 PBO chain-extends PET by coupling together two terminal
carboxylic acid groups.

 Effective use concentrations of PBO for PET are in the range 0.5–
1.5 wt% and these can give an IV increase for PET of 0.2 IV units –
that is, from 0.7 to 0.9 dL/g

 The increase in viscosity can be adjusted by the amount of PBO.

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DIEPOXIDE (EPON 828)
CHAIN EXTENDERS

92
DIEPOXIDE (EPON 828)
 Haralabakopoulos et al.; have reported that the
molecular weight of PET increases via chain extension
reactions with commercially available diepoxides.

 Low concentrations of extender and short reaction

times generally favoured chainextension.

 In addition, purging with nitrogen resulted in chain

extended polymers having the highest values of intrinsic
viscosity (e.g. 0.82 dL/g).
93
DIEPOXIDE (EPON 828)
 PET chain-extended with a diepoxide as chain extender
can exhibit varying degrees of branching and cross-
linking depending on the level of chain extender used.

 The branched and cross-linked PETs exhibit significant

improvement in tensile properties

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TETRAEPOXIDE (TGDDM)
 Ciba MY721:
 based on tetraglycidyl diaminodiphenyl methane (TGDDM)

95
TETRAEPOXIDE (TGDDM)
 Reactive processing of recycled PET with a tetrafunctional
epoxy additive induces randomly branched molecules
which gives rise to a corresponding increase in elongational
melt viscosity.

 This enables the PET to be foamed and allows the

production of closed-cell foams.

 The tetrafunctional tetraglycidyl diamino diphenyl methane

(TGDDM) (CIBA SC, MY721) is particularly efficient.

96
TETRAEPOXIDE (TGDDM)
 The use of multifunctional epoxy-based modifiers to
increase the melt strength of PET has been investigated
in detail by Japon et al, with the aim of producing PET
foams by an extrusion process.
 Increase of the Z-average molecular weight and the
presence of branched molecules of very large mass.

 The resulting intrinsic viscosity of the modified PET

was 1.13 dL/g.

97
POLYMERIC MODIFIERS FOR PET
 PET can be blended with PBT or polycarbonate (PC) to
make blends or alloys.

98
PET/PC
 Polycarbonate is a
 high Tg (150 ◦C) ductile
 high-impact strength polymer

but has rather poor solvent resistance because of its amorphous nature.

 PET/PC blends have therefore proved advantageous because they

combine the solvent-resistance advantages of PET with the high Tg
and toughness advantages of PC.

 In blends containing >40 % PET, the continuous phase (matrix) is

PET-rich, while the dispersed phase (domains) is PC-rich.

99
PET/PC
 This partial miscibility is responsible for the self-compatibilizing
nature of the blend, hence resulting in good delaminating resistance
and tensile strength.

 However, despite the good ductility of this blend and drop-

weight impact strength, the notched Izod impact strength of this
blend is still quite low (<60 J/m).

 For this reason, an elastomeric toughener is invariably needed to

improve the notch sensitivity of PET/PC blends.

100
PET/PBT AND PET/ PHENOXY RESIN
 Phenoxy resins can also be used for the modification of PET and
PBT.

 Phenoxy resins such as Paphen PKFE (Inchem Corporation) are

polyhydroxyether materials with pendant hydroxyl groups that can
react with the PET.

 Paphen phenoxy resins are reactive modifiers that can modify and
upgrade brittle polymers. Such resins contain 6 % of secondary
hydroxyl groups.

 The latter serve as reactive sites for reaction with polyesters,

polyamides, polycarbonates, epoxies and phenolics. 101
PET/PBT AND PET/ PHENOXY RESIN
 PET undergoes transesterification with the phenoxy polymer
(actually it is an oligomer). The transesterification is a bonding
reaction between the pendant hydroxyl (OH) groups on the phenoxy
resin repeat unit and the terminal acid (COOH) groups on the
polyester chains.

 The result is that individual PET polymer chains become coupled

together (thus increasing the molecular weight) and also that the
thermally stable phenoxy backbone is inserted into the PET
structure.

 This is claimed to upgrade the mechanical properties of polyesters

and to enhance their structural integrity.
102
103
 Its observed that mechanical property of Biaxially
oriented PET film is improved by the irradiation.

 Glass Transition
 Melting Temperature

 Crystallinity

104
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Effect of irradiation on Tm, Tg, Crystallinity
 PET biaxially oriented film with 0.25 mm thickness and having
molecular weight of 52,200 were irradiated at doses from 0.2 to
15 MGy, at temperature range of 22–801C.
 Crystallinity decreases with increase in dose because of the
formation of a branching polymer and some crosslinking
reactions.


105
MELTING TEMPERATURE

106
CRYSTALLINITY

107
 CURRENT
CHALLENGES

108
CURRENT CHALLENGES
 Mechanical properties adversely affect by irradiation, and this
effect was greater at the higher irradiation temperature.
 Stress at break and strain at break values strongly decrease with
the increase in dose due to chain scission.
 PET bottles canot be used for the storage of Alcholic drinks

 Flame retardency of fiber

 surface dehydration due to adsorbed water evaporation

 formation and removal (degradation and evaporation) of low

molecular products of PET radiolytic degradation and relative
increase of aliphatic units content on the surface.

109
110
Goals

111
112
 Conclusion
There are many research reported efficient results to modify the polymer material
with low energy. But, when irradiation dose applied on PET but there is no
significant results found without additives.

The main reason to not get a significant is benzene ring which required
higher dose to produce gel, that can able to make well crosslinking.

There is sometimes found the chain scission problem due to Oxygen induced
during irradiation

In PET few of studies are taken place on higher dose and found with
increasing dose of radiations, small changes of physicochemical characteristics
and the formation of crosslinking and chain scission are discussed.

This has recently motivated both academic and industrial research. A very
little work is done in this field so it demands the challenging research in the
near future to break down the limitless of PET applications.

113
114
REFRENCES
 Burilloa, G., Tenorioa, L., Bucio, E., 2007. Electron beam irradiation
effects on poly(ethylene terephthalate) . Radiation Physics and
Chemistry 76, 1728–1731.
 Adem, E., Hernández-Sampelayo , A.R., 2017. Physical properties
of biaxially oriented poly(ethylene terephtalate) irradiated at
different temperatures and doses with electron beam. Radiation
Physics and Chemistry 130, 5–11.
 Ivasiljeva, I.V., Mjakin, S.V., Makarov, A.V., 2006. Electron beam
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