PLANNING For TEACHING

RN, RM, Post RN, MSN

University of Health Sciences,
Dated :
Unit I, Unit 2 and Unit 3
Acknowledgment :
Unit 1
Task analysis
 Made up of two words task and analysis
 Task may be defined as unit of performance which collectively
constitute a function
 Taskanalysis is a process by which a task is broken down into its
component parts
 Everyone use task analysis at some point, even if it is unconsciously
 A task analysis is a fundamental tool for teaching skill sit is how
specific life skill task will be introduced and taught
 Good task analysis is including written list of discrete steps to
complete a task
 A task analysis is not meant to be given to the child, but it's used by
the teacher
Definition

 Task may be defined as unit of performance which

collectively constitute a function
 In education, task analysis is related to analysis of
activities of course content of students and task is unit
of achievements in teaching to any content

Faiza Hameed 09/19/2022 4

 Definition:

 1. Task analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished, including a

detailed description of both manual and mental activities, task and element

durations, task frequency, task allocation, task complexity, environmental

conditions, necessary clothing and equipment, and any other unique factors

involved in or required for one or more people to perform a given task.

 Wikipedia.
 Planning of Teaching and Learning

Identification Of Writing Learning

Task Analysis Objective
Teaching Objective

Faiza Hameed 09/19/2022 7

Purposes of Task Analysis

Instructional designers perform a task analysis in order to:

 Determine the instructional goals and objectives;

 Define and describe in detail the tasks and sub-tasks that the
student will perform;

 Specify the knowledge type (declarative, structural, and

procedural knowledge) that characterize a job or task;

 Prioritize and sequence tasks;

Contd.

 Determine instructional activities and strategies that foster learning;

 Select appropriate media and learning environments;

 Construct performance assessments and evaluation (Jonassen et al.,

1999).

 Predict difficulties in performance

 Evaluate systems against usability and/or functional requirements.

 Characteristics of Task Analysis

 Description of learning activities

 Identification of desired behavior

 Identification of appropriate situations and techniques of motivation

 Developing criterion test for measuring the desired behavioral change

Types of task analysis

In general:-
• Cognitive Task Analysis (cognitive activity, such as decision-making, problem-solving,
memory, attention and judgement.)
• Hierarchical Task Analysis (high-level task is decomposed into a hierarchy of subtasks)
In Education (Teaching Learning Process):-
• Content Analysis (content readiness) •
• Job Analysis (types of work like teaching, facilitator etc)
• Skill Analysis (micro-teaching, teaching aids, presentation etc) There are several types of
task analysis but among the most common techniques used are:

Faiza Hameed 09/19/2022 11

Types of Task Analysis

Content
Analysis or Job Skill
Topic Analysis Analysis
Analysis

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HTA : Hierarchical Task Analysis

 Graphical Representation

 Decomposition of high-level task into constituent subtask, operations,

plans

 Uses structure chart notation

HTA : Hierarchical Task Analysis
Cognitive Task Analysis

 Inform the design process through application of cognitive theories

 Some task, actions are cognitive –
 Examples
 Decide which button to press
 Recall previously stored knowledge from memory
 Compare two objects
 Model the internal representation and processing that occurs for the
purpose of designing tasks that can be undertaken more effectively by
humans
 Modelling Procedural Knowledge

 “How to do it” knowledge

 Focuses on task to action mapping

 GOMS (Goals, Operations, Methods, Selection Rules) is most famous

approach.
 Content Analysis
 It is topic analysis, in which the subject matter is analyzed into subtopics and
subtopics into elements, and these are arranged into a logical sequence .

 Content analysis is purely educational and intellectual activity.

 Example, nursing administration-elements of teaching administration

 Job Analysis:
 It is concerned with tasks which are related to some professional and
social activity. It involves psychomotor activities.

 Example : Teachers, doctors and nurses tasks etc.

 How to Perform a Task Analysis?

 According to Jonassen, the task analysis process consists of five distinct functions:

 Classifying tasks according to learning outcomes –

 Inventorying tasks – identifying tasks or generating a list of tasks

 Selecting tasks – prioritizing tasks and choosing those that are more feasible and
appropriate if there is an abundance of tasks to train.

 Decomposing tasks – identifying and describing the components of the tasks, goals,
or objectives.

 Sequencing tasks and sub-tasks – defining the sequence in which instruction should
occur that will best facilitate learning.
 Format of Task Analysis
 There are different formats to use based on the type of learning outcome.

The most prevalent tasks are:

 Procedural Task Analysis (for procedural skills)

 Hierarchical or Prerequisite Analysis (for intellectual skills)

 Information Processing Analysis (for procedural and cognitive tasks)

 Cluster Analysis (for verbal information skills)

 Conceptual Graph analysis (for concepts)

 Methods

 Task Decomposition
 The aim of ‘high level task decomposition’ is to decompose the high level tasks
and break them down into their constituent subtasks and operations. This will
show an overall structure of the main user tasks.
 At a lower level it may be desirable to show the task flows, decision processes
and even screen layouts (see task flow analysis, below)
 The process of task decomposition is best represented as a structure chart
(similar to that used in Hierarchical Task Analysis).
 This shows the sequencing of activities by ordering them from left to right. In
order to break down a task, the question should be asked ‘how is this task
done?’.
 If a sub-task is identified at a lower level, it is possible to build up the structure
by asking ‘why is this done?’.
 Stages of Task Decomposition
1. Identify the task to be analyzed.

2. Break this down into between 4 and 8 subtasks. These subtasks should be specified
in terms of objectives and, between them, should cover the whole area of interest.

3. Decide upon the level of detail into which to decompose. Making a conscious
decision at this stage will ensure that all the subtask decompositions are treated
consistently.

4. Continue the decomposition process, ensuring that the decompositions and

numbering are consistent.

5. Present the analysis to someone else who has not been involved in the
decomposition but who knows the tasks well enough to check for consistency.
 Identification of Nursing Situations

Taba’s Method Of Task Analysis

Step 1: Concept Formation
This involves organizing unorganized information by analysis
1. Enumerate and listing
2. Identifying common properties, abstracting
3. Labelling and categorizing , determining and hierarchical order of item.

Step 2: Interpretation of data

This involves forming generalization of using inductive reasoning by:
4. Identifying points , examining similar aspects of selected topics.
5. Explaining items of identified information, comparing and contrasting identifying cause and
effect relationships.
6. Forming inferences , implications or extrapolations.
Contd.
Step 3: Application of principles and facts
This involves the process of deductive reasoning by:
1. Predictive consequences , hypothesizing.
2. Explaining and/or supporting the predictions or hypotheses.
3. Verifying the prediction or hypotheses.

Purposes of Taba’s Approach.

 It help’s learner form concepts of nursing.
 It encourages then in compare data and make inferences based on these data.
 The learner is guided in predicting consequence based on results of research
or on principles previously develop in forming information.
Adaptations of Taba’s model to Nursing
Education

 Example

 Guides the student to take any of the steps for which he is at the moment best

prepared.

 Increases the possibility of his learning success by focusing on activities that are

relevant,

 Facilitates the acquisition of gradually high levels of learning creates an awareness

of progress among the class.

 Summary
 Task analysis describes behaviors at three levels: goals, tasks, actions

 Tasks are usually viewed in terms of a hierarchical decomposition of tasks into

subtasks.

 HTA and related techniques focus on what happens, rather than on what should
happen.

 Cognitive task analysis techniques aim to describe some aspect of the cognitive
characteristics of users’ tasks.

 Some methods (such as GOMS) concentrate on users’ procedural or “how-to-do-

it” knowledge.

 Other methods focus on task knowledge.

Competencies
 Competency
 DEFINITION
1. Competence is the ability of an individual to do a job properly. A competency
is a set of defined behaviors that provide a structured guide enabling the
identification, evaluation and development of the behaviors in individual
employees.
Wikipedia

2. A “competency” is an expected level of performance that results from an

integration of knowledge, skills, abilities, and judgment.

American Nurses Association

 Types of Competencies
 Organizational competencies: The mission, vision, values, culture and core
competencies of the organization that sets the tone and/or context in which the
work of the organization is carried out
 (Examples customer-driven, risk taking and cutting edge). How we treat the
patient is part of the patient's treatment.
 Core competencies: Capabilities and/or technical expertise unique to an
organization, i.e., core competencies differentiate an organization from its
competition
 Examples the technologies, methodologies, strategies or processes of the
organization that create competitive advantage in the marketplace). An
organizational core competency is an organization’s strategic strength.
 Technical competencies: Depending on the position, both technical and
performance capabilities should be weighed carefully as employment decisions are
made. For example, organizations that tend to hire or promote solely on the basis
of technical skills,
 Examples an increase in performance-related issues, systems software designs
versus relationship management skills.
Contd.
 Behavioral competencies: Individual performance competencies are more
specific than organizational competencies and capabilities.
 As such, it is important that they be defined in a measurable behavioral
context in order to validate applicability and the degree of expertise (e.g.
development of talent)
Contd.
 Functional competencies: Functional competencies are job-specific
competencies that drive proven high-performance, quality results for a given
position. They are often technical or operational in nature
 Example "backing up a database" is a functional competency).

 Management competencies: Management competencies identify the specific

attributes and capabilities that illustrate an individual’s management
potential.
 Unlike leadership characteristics, management characteristics can be learned
and developed with the proper training and resources.
 Competencies in this category should demonstrate pertinent behaviors for
effective management to be effective.
 Core competency

 DEFINITION

 A core competency is a concept in management theory introduced by, C. K.

Prahalad and Gary Hamel. It can be defined as "a harmonized combination
of multiple resources and skills that distinguish a firm in the marketplace".
 Core competencies fulfill three criteria:
 Provides potential access to a wide variety of markets.
 Should make a significant contribution to the perceived customer benefits
of the end product.
 Difficult to imitate by competitors.
 How you Develop Competencies?

 Defining which competencies are necessary for success in your

organization can help you do the following:
 Ensure that your people demonstrate sufficient expertise.
 Recruit and select new staff more effectively.
 Evaluate performance more effectively.
 Identify skill and competency gaps more efficiently.
 Provide more customized training and professional development.
 Plan sufficiently for succession.
 Make change management processes work more efficiently.
 Principles for developing competencies
1. Involve the people doing the work –
 To understand a role fully, you have to go to the source – the person doing the
job – as well as getting a variety of other inputs into what makes someone
successful in that job.

2. Communicate –
 People tend to get nervous about performance issues.
 Let them know why you're developing the framework, how it will be created,
and how you'll use it.
 The more you communicate in advance, the easier your implementation will
be. 

3. Use relevant competencies – Ensure that the competencies you include apply
to all roles covered by the framework to cover the whole organization.
 However, a framework covering management roles would almost certainly
involve the financial management competency.
 Developing the Framework

Four main steps in the competency framework development process.

Step 1: Prepare
 Define the purpose
 Create a competency framework team

Step 2: Collect Information

 Observe
 Interview people 
 Create a questionnaire
 Analyze the work 
Contd.

Step 3: Build the Framework

 Group the statements 

 Create subgroups

 Refine the subgroups

 Identify and name the competencies

 Validate and revise the competencies as necessary

Contd.

Step 4: Implement
 Link to business objectives

 Reward the competencies

 Provide coaching and training 

 Keep it simple 

 Communicate 
Examples of nursing activities converted
into competencies
TALK or ACTIVITY STANDARD COMPETENCY

Sterilize Equipment Without bacteria found Sterilize equipment so that bacteria

on culture will not be found on culture

Recognize measles Differentiate from rubella Recognize the difference between

measles and rubella
Benefits of a Competency-Based System for Employers

 Ensures that organization-funded training and professional development activities are cost-
effective, goal-oriented and productive
 Enables employees to achieve a high level of competence in an efficient manner
 Records the employee’s acquisition of the skills, knowledge, safety and other procedures
relating to each task
 Reduces cost overruns caused by poor performance or miscommunication of job expectations
 Improves communication between employee and management
 Increases internal employee mobility, providing the organization with greater ability scale
and flex as needed
 Establishes a framework for constructive feedback by management at scheduled training and
performance appraisal intervals
 Clarifies job standards for performance appraisals
 Outlines employee development and promotional paths within the organization
Benefits of a Competency-Based System for Employees

 Sets clear performance expectations for employees, enabling them to make

better decisions and work more effectively
 Gives employees insight into the overall strategy of their team, department,
and organization, leading to greater engagement and motivation
 Enables employees to be more proactive beyond their individual roles, by
learning additional competencies that are valued by the organization
 Provides clear direction for learning new job skills
 Offers a reference resource for day-to-day requirements
 Increases the potential for job satisfaction
 Provides a mechanism for the recognition of employees’ abilities
 Ensures that individual professional development and training milestones are
recorded and acknowledged by the organization
Advantages of Competency-Based
Education :
 Individualized path to learning and completing a degree.
 Based on mastery not credit hour.
 Affordable and flexible for working adult students.
 Use of multiple instructional materials/methods to match different learning
styles and preferences.
 Allows one to skip a course and just take assessment if they have
knowledge/work experience on the subject (so prior learning assessment is
built in).
 Students can move through quickly if they prefer and shorten graduation time.
 Faculty can provide timely and higher quality feedback as they have more
without teaching or everyone submitting assignments at same time.
Disadvantages:

 Finding a way to standardize the definitions of competencies and develop

reliable assessments.

 Uncertainty about scaling to large universities especially due to the fact that
this type of education challenges the traditional credit hour (and the revenue
associated with it).

 Traditional students and unmotivated students may not benefit as much as

adult students.
Competency Model
What is a competency Model?
1. Definition
 A competency model is a collection of competencies that together define
successful performance in a particular work setting.
 Competency models are the foundation for important human resource
functions such as recruitment and hiring, training and development, and
performance management.
 Competency models can be developed for specific jobs, job groups,
organizations, occupations, or industries.
2. Definition
 A competency model is a framework for organizing a collection of observable
skills, behaviors, and attitudes that impact the quality of work that people
do.
 It describes what people need to know and be able to do in order to execute
on their responsibilities effectively.
Elements of a competency Model

1. Competency names and detailed definitions. For example, a competency model

could include a competency called "Teamwork" defined as:
2. Establishing constructive and solid interpersonal relationships;
3. Treating others with courtesy, tact, and respect;
4. Working effectively with others, regardless of organizational level, background,
gender, race, or ethnicity;
5. Working to resolve disagreements, attempting to persuade others and reach
agreements;
6. Abiding by and supporting group decisions; and
7. Facilitating team interaction and maintaining focus on group goals.
Cont.
8. Descriptions of activities or behavior associated with each competency. For
example, the following behaviors could be associated with the competency
"Teamwork":

9. Handling differences in work styles effectively when working with coworkers,

10.Capitalizing on strengths of others on a team to get work done,

11.Anticipating potential conflicts and addressing them directly and effectively,

12.Motivating others to contribute opinions and suggestions, and

13.Demonstrating a personal commitment to group goals.

Miller’s Pyramid/Prism
of
Clinical Competence
Miller’s Pyramid/Prism of Clinical Competence
 Psychologist George Miller proposed a framework for assessing levels of clinical competence back in 1990.

It is only in the “does” triangle that the Nurses

Doctors and allied health professionals truly perform
Contd.
 Knows : knows some knowledge
 Knows how: knows how to apply that knowledge
 Shows: shows how to apply that knowledge
 Does: actually applies that knowledge in practise

 In the pyramid, the lower two levels only test cognition (or knowledge) and
this is the area where inexperienced trainees (or novices) usually sit:

 Example, they either ‘know’ something about a mental state examination or

they ‘know how’ to do a mental state examination.
Contd.

 The upper two levels test behaviour: can they apply what they know into
practise? Going back to the previous example: can they ‘show’ how to do a mental
state examination or do they actually ‘do’ a mental state examination in practise?

 Research shows that the cognition zone (‘knows’ or ‘knows how’) correlates
poorly with the behaviour zone (‘shows’ or ‘does’):

 A trainee who knows how to do something doesn’t necessarily mean that they will
do that in daily practise. But it’s important that trainees do what they know in
practise otherwise there’s no point learning it

 If you want such trainees to apply their learning into real daily life (as opposed to it
lying dormant in their brains) you need to use methods that will encourage them
to progress through the ‘shows’ and ‘does’ zones (behaviour).
Contd.
 For the ‘shows’ zone this often involves artificial simulation exercises like
them demonstrating it to you or via OSCEs and patient simulations. The
‘does’ zone invariably involves looking at what happens in the real work place
environment
 Example: Observing them or using video recordings of real consultations.
 Originally, Miller represented his framework as a 2 dimensional pyramid.
We’ve adapted it to include the knowledge, skills and attitudes domains of
learning and thus called it ‘Miller’s Prism’.
 Dent and Harden have added a 5th level called ‘Mastery’ that sits above
‘Does’ to make the distinction between one who can perform a skill with
competence to one who can perform it in a expert or masterful way.
How to Use This Model
 Traditionally, the model has been used to match assessment methods to the
competency being tested.
 If you wanted to see how good a trainee is at ‘examination of the knee’, offering
multiple choice questions might demonstrate they know about it but not that
they can actually do it.
 To test the latter the assessment method of choice might include an OSCE style
station to examine the knee or better still, direct observation in the work place
itself.
 Remember, trainees can get away with ‘brushing up’ their knowledge and skills
before an MCQ/essay type exam (which then, as we all know, fades after that
exam).
 The model can help you formulate objectives for a particular teaching/learning
session: by forcing you to think carefully about what you are trying to achieve.
Contd.
The Examples of objectives and the level of Miller’s prism :
No 1: Educational Session on Cardiac Risk
 Understanding what is meant by cardiac risk and why it’s important (KNOWS)
 Knowing what to do if the risk is too high (KNOWS HOW)
 Being able to demonstrate the use of the cardiac risk calculator (SHOWS)
 In a similar way you can use it to help design a course programme. For instance, if
you wanted to do a half day workshop on ‘shoulder joint injections’, you could design an
instructional session reflecting some of the levels of Miller’s prism:
No 2: Workshop “Intra Muscular Injection on Deltoid Muscles”
 9-9.30am Revisiting the Anatomy of the Deltoid Muscles (KNOWS)
 9.30-10am Pitfalls to remember (KNOWS)
 10 – 10.30Deltoid Muscle Injection Algorithm (KNOWS HOW)
 10.30-11am Break
 11-1230 Practising the technique on dummies (SHOWS)
 1230-2pm Lunch
Contd.

 If you want to test at the ‘does’ level you would have to consider practical

work-place based sessions. But there might be other methods too like a

review of video consultations with real patients (if your objective was to look

at communication skills).

 For those trainees in their early stages, you might concentrate on the basic

building-block knowledge domain like: why it is important to ascertain

patient’s ideas, concerns and expectations and what the evidence says

(KNOWS).
Contd.

 For those more experience (or the same trainee but later on) you might

consider how they might actually elicit ideas, concerns and expectations: what

phrases they might use (KNOWS HOW).

 When they’re even more experienced, then you might look at in vivo

performance like reviewing videos of actual consultations with patient (DOES)

 Acknowledgement: Farhan Mukhtar

References
Miller GE. The assessment of clinical skills/ competence/ performance. Acad Med
(1990);65:s63-s67.