ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Chapter 7 LEARNING

MEANING AND DEFINITION

Learning is understood as the modification of behavior through practice training or experience Five important components supplement meaning of learning:
1. 2. Learning involves change good or bad for the organization evident only when situation arises Not all changes reflect learning; To constitute learning, change should be rel. permanent ; Temp. learnings may only be reflective & fail to rep. learning. E.g. Behavioral changes brought about by fatigue or drugs Reflected in behavior ;change in attitude not accompanied by behavior is not learning ; needs to result in behavior potentiality & not necessarily behavior itself ; Reason: Individuals may learn but not exhibit due to lack of motivation Change should be result of experience practice or training Practice must be reinforced for learning to occur Learning not confined merely to education

3.

4. 5. 6.

THREE DEFINIONS ELUCIDATE ABOVE FIVE COMPONENTS

Learning may defined as a relatively permanent change that occurs as a result of prior experience Generally described as the process of having ones behavior modified more or less permanently by what he/she does and consequences of his/hers action or by what he/she observes Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in the behavior potentiality that results from reinforced practices or experience

Consumer Learning is said to be the process by which persons acquire the purchase & consumption knowledge & experience that they apply to future related behavior Based on two vital aspects ( a ) behavior ( b ) Experience Components of Learning Process Drives strong stimuli that propels action , arouses an urge to respond to the stimuli , forms basis of motivation . Motivation is based on needs & goals Cues ---cue stimuli can be any object existing in the environment as perceived by the individual . If motivation stimulates the learning process it is the cues which serve the purpose of stimuli & gives direction to the motives . Marketers will have to determine conditions under which cues will increase th probability of eliciting a specific response e. g. ad for touring temples in South may act as a cue for a retired executive to realize a dream . Marketers must ensure cues consistent with consumer expectations Response Stimuli will result in response . May be physical or complex phenomena such as attitudes , perception etc . Learning can take place even when response is not over . Like planting a favorable image of a product prelaunch may result in positive response & consumer mat evince desire in purchasing the product like Santro Reinforcement refers to the environmental events which increase th likelihood of specific response occurring in the future as a result of particular stimuli or cues . If a girl has won a beauty context with a particular brand of cosmetics she will continue to use it Retention ---The stability of learned behavior maintained by the indibvidual over a period of time . Under repeated conditions of positive reinforcement likely hood of conditioned response

To continue . When a consumer is satisfied with a particular brand he will positively reinforce the product e. g. a customer satisfied with the response of a Retailer will continue her patronage . This is retention

LEARNING: EXPLICIT AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE :
Organized and can be communicated from one to another e.g. classroom Can be written down and communicated Only small portion of total knowledge

TACIT KNOWLEDGE :
The idea that one knows more than what is conveyed Obtained thru observation & direct experience Embedded in thinking and actions but not clearly understood Cannot be conveyed explicitly; Insufficiently articulated thru verbal/written messages Quickly lost when employees leave organization, as not documented Similarly orgs. acquire tacit knowledge when employees experiment with new tech. Most knowledge in org. is tacit ; one of challenges in knowledge mgmt. is store/share

HOW LEARNING OCCURS: THEORIES OF LEARNING

CLASSICAL LEARNING SOCIAL LEARNING

LEARNING
CLASSICAL LEARNING

OPERANT CONDITIONING

CLASSICAL LEARNING
Based on the premise that a physical event - stimuli that initially does not elicit response gradually acquires the capacity as a result of repeated pairing with a stimulus that can elicit a reaction. Learning this type common and seems to play an important role in reactions like strong fears, taste aversions and prejudices.

PAVLOV'S EXPERIMENT CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Bell Before Conditioning No Response Unconditioned Response (UR) (Salivation) Unconditioned (UR) Stimulus (Food) Unconditioned Response (UR) (Salivation) Conditioned (CS) Stimulus (Bell)
After Conditioning Unconditioned Response

Unconditioned (US) Stimulus (Food) During Conditioning Conditioned (CS) Stimulus (Bell)

(Salivation) (UR)

When Pavlov made dog salivate to bell alone designed as conditioned reflex (CR) which emphasized arousal of reflex dep. on stimulus (conditional stimulus CS) In an organisation e.g. plant classical condition evidenced during visit of head which ensures cleanup all employees. Eventually even when no visit when plant cleaned the employees would turn up in their best Classical condition represents only a small part of human learning Skinner felt classical conditioning explains only respondent (reflex )behaviors involuntary responses to stimulus Most human behaviors affects or operates on the environment .This behavior is learnt through Operant conditioning

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Refers to the process that our behavior produces certain consequences . How we behave in future will depend on the consequences. If pleasant will be repeated. Emphasizes voluntary behavior called operant behavior as they operate on environment Make environment respond in the desired way e.g. coffee vending machine : learnt how to cause environment (machine) to deliver cup of coffee.

Examples of application in an organization:

Executive asked to speak in a board meeting . Stimulus is request to speak . Exec. responds by giving his views ; Response of director ( nods/smiles Vs Frown/ disinterest) will reinforce or dissuade the Exec. Visit of factory inspector; Impressed with visit, he provides reinforcement by praising in favorable terms

Operant conditioning has a much greater impact on human learning Much of OB also explained e.g. employees work 8 hour a day six days a week in order to satisfy basic needs for self . & family; Working only instrumental to provide basic needs Consequences of OB can change environmental situation and greatly affect subsequent employee behavior Managers can analyze causes of OB to help accomplish the . goals of prediction and control

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL & OPERATING CONDITIONINGS

TYPE OF RESPONSE : Classic conditioning : a specific stimulus (food ) elicits a specific response ; The response is elicited; Emphasis . on involuntary responses Operant conditioning : not elicited by controlled stimulus but spontaneously emitted by subject ; Precise . stimuli cannot be identified emphasis on voluntary responses proactive with choice conditioned stimulus

CONSEQUENCE OF RESPONSE : CLASSIC CONDITIONING : Organisms behavior is not instrumental in achieving any result Organism unable to change the events of the experiment by its behavior Food presented / not presented as per design of experiment . Subjects behavior does not influence occurrence of these events OPERANT CONDITIONING : Subjects response operates on the environment to achieve some results e.g. escape from discomfort , access to food.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Cognitive process assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn. Assumes that the organisms learns the meaning of various objects and events and learned responses depending on the meaning assigned to stimuli

THEORIES OF LEARNING
Feedback Prior Learning Behavioral Choice Perceived Consequences

In the cognitive view people draw on their experiences & use past learning as a basis for present behavior Experiences represent presumed knowledge or cognitions e.g. employee with choice of job assignment will decide on previous experience. Secondly, people make choices about their behavior. . View options and chooses one
.

Thirdly, recognize consequence of their choice i.e. If they find the job assignments rewarding & fulfilling, they will recognize that choice was a good one and will understand why Finally evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning which affects future choice . Faced with same job choices the next year, subsequently choose the same one Cognitive theory of learning relevant in contemporary management practices Expectations, attributions and locus of control are all cognitive concepts requiring attention while motivating employees

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Also called observational learning; emphasizes the ability of an individual to learn by observing others. Models incl. Parents, teachers, peers, TV actors etc Individual acquires new knowledge by observing outcome to his model ; called Vicarious Learning Learner acquires tacit knowledge & skills through vicarious learning

OBSERVATIONAL / SOCIAL LEARNING - OVERVIEW

Model Behavior Observer Pay attention to model . Remember what model did Practice models behavior Motivated to imitate model ?

Imitate models behavior

Social learning has considerable relevance in OB. How to behave in an organisation explained by process of observational learning. Observational learning occurs in informal / unarticulated manner e.g. people imbibe norms and traditions which they experience ; Social learning enhances the self efficacy of the learner i.e. persons belief that he/she has the ability, motivation and situational contingences to succeed in any task Gain confidence after watching others and achieves efficiency e.g. emulating a model . Enables employees to shape behaviors that benefit organisation ; Shaping based on principle that a little can eventually go a long way.

Individual receive reward at each step of target response , rather than only for final response Initially actions even remotely resembling the target behavior, termed Successive Approximations are followed by reward . E.g. Baby initially rewarded / noticed when he
first makes any sound. Gradually, parents respond only to words making sense.

Shaping helps organisms acquire or construct new or more complex forms of behavior from simple behavior. Managers can shape behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves individual closer to desired response. E.g. If an employee
regularly comes hr late, but then comes only 20 mins late, boss can reinforce this for improvement

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
MOTIVATION : Concept basic because without motivation learning does not or at least is not discernible. A person must have a need desire which must be satisfied by learning.

REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT AND EXTINCTION

REINFORCEMENT : Attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behavior . Two types or Reinforcement: POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT : Strengthen and enhances behavior by presentation of positive reinforcers; can be both primary and secondary Primary reinforcers : satisfy basic biological needs ; do not always reinforce e.g. food to the satiated person.

Secondary reinforcers : influence behavior in most organizations; incl. status, grades, money and praise Conditioned reinforcers : secondary reinforcers often become positive reinforcers due to their association with primary reinforcers; Called Conditioned Reinforcers Positive Reinforcement has several principles:
. .

1. 2. 3.

4.

Principle of contingent reinforcement: Reinforcer administered only if desired behavior occurs Principle of immediate reinforcement: Reinforcer will be most effective if administered immediately after desired behavior has occurred Principle of Reinforcement Size : Larger the amount of reinforcement after desired behavior, more effect on freq. of desired behavior ; Size is relative ; must be determined relative to individual and behavior. Principle of Reinforcement Deprivation : More a person is deprived of reinforcer, greater will be the effect on future occurrence of desired behavior

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT : o An unpleasant event that precedes a behavior is removed when desired behavior occurs . This increases likelihood of desired behavior occurring. o Negative reinforces are the stimuli that strengthen responses that permit organism to avoid or escape from their presence. o We see negative reinforcers both in organisations and personal life. o Supervisors use negative reinforcement when they stop criticizing employees whose performance has improved. o By doing so, employees likely to repeat behaviors that enhance performance.

Negative reinforcement also occurs when parents give in to children's tantrums in public . Over time it becomes a tendency, coz giving in stops screaming Thus both positive and negative reinforcement are procedures that strengthen or increase behavior. Positive reinforcement strengthens by presentation of desirable consequences. Negative reinforcements strengthens behavior by threat of and use of an undesirable consequence or withdrawal of an undesirable consequence. Negative reinforcement confused with punishment ; both use unpleasant stimuli to influence behavior. Negative reinforcement is used to increase frequency of desired behavior ; but punishment is to decrease undesirable behavior.

COMPARISON OF SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Schedules Description Reinforcers administered after a const. amt. of time has elapsed Example Influence on performance Effect on behavior

Fixed Interval

Bosss round 1300-1400 hrs monthly pay check.

Average and irregular.

Fast extinction

Variable interval

Reinforcers administered after variable amount of time

Daily rounds at different times on diff. days Piece rating of wages or bonus for every given amount of sales.

Reinforcers Fixed administered after ratio a constant number Schedule of actions performed

Leads to moderately high and stable performance Leads quickly to high and stable performance

Slow extinction of behavior Moderately fast extinction of behavior

Schedules Reinforcers administered after a variable no. of actions performed.

Example Slot machines; Winner after unknown time plays.

Influence on performance Leads to very high performance.

Effort Very slow extinction of behavior

Variable ratio schedule

PUNISHMENT : Attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable behavior Used in two ways:

1. 2. Apply Negative consequences called punishers following undesirable behavior e.g. suspension of defaulting athlete With Positive consequence e.g. sales representative who makes few visits to clients (undesirable behavior) is likely to receive less commission (positive reinforcer) at month end

REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT

Reinforcement Punishment (Desired Behavior) (Undesired Behavior)

Positive Reinforcers Negative Reinforcers

Apply

Withhold

Withhold

Apply

Above figure shows how positive and negative reinforcers may be applied or withheld in reinforcement and punishment

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT

Recurrence of Undesirable behavior
But leads to long term

Undesirable behavior

Emotional reaction Aggressive behavior Apathetic non creative performance Fear of supervisor High turnover and absenteeism

Punishment by supervisor

Short term decrease in frequency of Undesirable behavior

Which tends to reinforce

EXTINCTION : Alternate to punishing undesirable behavior is extinction. Weakening of a behavior by ignoring it or ensuring it is not reinforced Rationale is that a behavior not followed by reinforcer is weakened Needs time and patience to be effective
In a nutshell, if rewards are withdrawn for behavior that was previously reinforced, the behaviors probably will become less frequent and die out.

WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING

Great deal of psychological work to determine whether learning a whole job is superior to breaking it into parts and learning the parts In parts learning, not only individual parts to be learnt but must be able to combine them to achieve whole performance No conclusion reached so far in this field

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING LEARNING CURVES

Amount Learned
Plateaux

Fatigue Initial Spurt Disorganization of Learning End Spurt

Organization of Learning

Time

Certain characteristics common to all learning curves Initial Spurt : Highly motivated; exhibits a significant surge of effort Some trainers exploit this by presenting more imp. items & presenting them as a pkg. at the start of the training itself First step is best step Learning Plateau : At some point in learning process flattening in terms of improvement, i.e. a Plateau Marked by discontinuities ; escalating from one plateau to another ; called Organization of Learning Manifests in feelings of never going to get anywhere

Organizing of Learning : When learner discovers better way of performing particular task Disorganizing of Learning : Fall in performance Occurs when the subject has to choose between alternate methods of tackling a task End Spurt Preceded by fatigue, which normally sets in with time When nearing end of training, learner displays resurgence of interest and effort to learn more

MEANINGFULLNESS OF MATERIAL
Definite relationship has been established between learning and meaningfulness of subject learnt More meaningful the subject better the learning
E.g. Learning of nonsense syllables proceeds more slowly than prose or poetry

A program in which each task makes for meaningfulness; trainers do have certain techniques that increase meaning of training Organizing meaningfulness units, creating association with already familiar terms, and providing a conceptual basis of logical reason for material are some of the practical possibilities.

LEARNING STYLES
Refers to ability of individual to learn Long term success depends more on ability to learn than on mastery of specific skill /knowledge Four styles of learning:
.

1.

Accommodator:
Learns by doing/feeling, i.e. Hands on Operates on gut feeling, rather than on logical analysis Relies more heavily on people while making decisions Action oriented careers: Mkt.ing, politics, public relations

2.

Diverger:
Learns by observing/feeling Ability to view concrete situations from different angles Enjoys brainstorming while problem solving Takes time and analyses various alternatives Imaginative and sensitive to needs of other people Careers: Entertainment, art, service sector

3.

Converger:
Learns by doing/thinking Seeks practical use for info Tends to focus on solutions Prefers tech. tasks & problems rather than social or interpersonal issues Tech Careers: Engineering, science, Production

4.

Assimilator:
Learns by observing/thinking Understands wide range of info & putting it in concise and logical form Prefers ideas or theories to be more logical than practical Prefers dealing with abstract ideas and concepts rather than people Careers: Education, science, Information

LEARNING STYLES

Feeling Accommodator Doing Converger Assimilator Diverger Observing

Thinking

LEARNING AND OB Stimulus generalization in organizations

Refers to how people recognize same or similar stimuli in different settings A process in which they can generalize a contingent reinforcement from one setting to another Based on initial stimulus response- consequence sequence, person learns the behaviors likely to produce some kind of reinforcement. Later, when presented with similar stimulus in different settings, knows that the same response is likely to elicit same consequence
. .

STIMULUS, GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION

Stimuli (Work Situation) Response (Choice of Behavior) Consequence (Reinforcement) Stimulus (New Work Situation) Is new stimulus similar enough to initial one to expect same behavior reinforcement relationship Generalization Discrimination (New Behavior)

Stimulus discrimination in an organization

Ability to recognize differences among stimuli Learns basic stimulus- response- consequence for one stimulus; When confronted with a new stimulus can discriminate between two stimuli and responds differently

Stimulus Generalization & consumer Behavior

LEARNING AND TRAINING : Learning is the major objective of training ; training becomes effective if conducted with learning principles Many organisation invest on training and development to expand skills and abilities of their employees LEARNING THROUGH FEEDBACK : Information received about the consequences of their behavior is called Feedback Feedback effects behavior and job performance by improving role perceptions, ability, and motivation Develop better skills thru non verbal cues from customers; Corrective Feedback- makes people aware of performance errors & helps them correct those quickly Positive feedback fulfills personal needs and makes people feel more confident to accomplish certain tasks

EMPLOYEE INDISCIPLINE :
Acts of drunkenness on the job, late arrivals, insubordination Managers respond with disciplinary actions- warnings, temporary warnings Research shows that managers should act immediately to correct crime Severity of punishment to match severity of crime Link between punishment and crime should be clear Punishment is not correct answer; May perceive punishment as a result of getting caught rather than as incentive to replace incorrect behaviors with another set of behaviors Punishment only tells what not to do ; Does not tell what alternative correct behavior should be Leads to short term suppressing of bad behavior & not elimination Continued use produces fear of manager; Undermines manageremployee relations

The popularity of discipline lies in its ability to produce quick results in the short run. Mangers are reinforced to use discipline because it produces an immediate change in employee behavior. But in the long run, when used without positive reinforcement of desired behavior, it is likely to lead to employee frustration, fear of manager , recurrences of the problem behavior, increase in absenteeism and decrease in turnover (sales)

SUMMARY
Learning is understood as modification of human behavior through practice training and experience. Distinction between explicit and tacit knowledge Learning occurs through classical conditioning, operate conditioning, cognitive and observational processes. Learning becomes effective when based on certain principles e.g. motivation reinforcement learning curves. Motivation makes Learning more effective.

Reinforcement refers to consequences of a behavior. If consequences of behavior are positive, tendency to repeat - Positive Reinforcement. Behavior not repeated when consequences negative Negative Reinforcement Reinforcement administered through schedules. Fixed / variable more effective than others Trainer should be aware of training curves from initial spurt-plateau-final spurt. Learning is of great relevance to study of OB. It stimulates generalization / discrimination in organizations. Major objective in training ; solves Employee indiscipline Organizational Learning will be covered later

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