Chapter 9

Categorical Logic
 CONTENTS

Part 1: Categorical propositions

Part 2: Translating into standard categorical form
Part 3: Testing validity with Venn Diagrams
 Part 1: Categorical propositions
 Categorical propositions make declarations about
entities belonging to, or not belonging to, categories or
classes. Each categorical proposition has 4 basic parts:
1. Quantifier: All, No, or Some
2. Subject: (S)
3. Predicate: (P)
4. Copula: Linking verb

Ex: All IU students are Critical Thinking learners.

1 2 4 3
Categorical Claims

 All S are P
 No S are P
 Some S are P
 Some S are not P
Venn Diagrams for Categorical Propositions
All S are P
 Venn diagrams, invented by John Venn, is a very useful
method of diagramming the informational content of
categorical propositions.
 A Venn diagram for a categorical proposition consists
of 2 overlapping circles. (Figure A)
 A Venn diagram for a categorical argument consists of
3 overlapping circles. (Figure B)

(Figure A) (Figure B)
Venn diagram for a categorial proposition.
Two simple rules governing Venn diagram:

1. Shade an area to show that it is empty.

2. Place an X in an area to show that it is occupied
by some (at least one).

1 2
All S are P

Take
Delete this. this.
No S are P

Take this. Delete

this.
Some S are P

Take
this
Some S are not P

Take this.
 Review: Four Categorical Claims
 "All S are P" (A): "The class of S outside of P is empty."
 "No S are P" (E): "The class of S inside P is empty."
 "Some S are P" (I): "The class of S inside P has at least one
member."
 "Some S are not P" (O): "The class of S outside of P has at least
one member.“
 Common stylistic variants
A: All S are P
Every S is a P. Whoever is an S is a P.
Whatever is an S is a P. If anything is an S, then it is a P.
Any S is a P. If something is not a P, then it is not an S.
Each S is a P. S are all P.
S are always P. Only P are S.
The only S are P. Only if something is a P is it an S.
Something is an S only if it is a P.
 Common stylistic variants
A: No S are P
No P are S.
S are not P.
Nothing that is an S is a P.
No one who is an S is a P.
None of the S is a P.
Not a single S is P.
If anything is an S then it is not a P.
All S are non-P.
 Common stylistic variants
A: Some S are P

Some P are S.
A few S are P.
There are S that are P.
Several S are P.
Many S are P.
Most S are P.
Nearly all S are P.
 Common stylistic variants
A: Some S are NOT P
Not all S are P.
Not everyone who is an S is a P.
S are not always P.
Some S are non-P.
There are S that are not P.
A few S are not P.
Several S are not P.
Most S are not P.
Nearly all S are not P.
Practice: Translate the following only sentences
into standard categorical form.
1. Only doctors are psychiatrists.

2. Only fools rush in.

3. Employees’ restroom only.

4. None except senior citizens are eligible for the discount.

5. Teachers alone may use the Teacher’s Lounge.

Practice: Translate the following only sentences
into standard categorical form.
1. Only doctors are psychiatrists.
All psychiatrists are doctors.
2. Only fools rush in.
All people who rush in are fools.
3. Employees’ restroom only.
All people who use the restroom are employees.
4. None except senior citizens are eligible for the discount.
All people who are eligible for the discount are senior citizens.
5. Teachers alone may use the Teacher’s Lounge.
All people who may use the Teacher’s Lounge are teachers.
Practice: Translate the following sentences into
standard categorical form.
1. There are birds that cannot sing. (Q.13, p236)

2. The grass is always greener on the other side. (Q.16, p236)

3. Polar bears live in Canada. (Q.19, p236)

4. If you don’t learn this lesson, you’re not here today.

5. Not all friendly teachers are easy-going.

Practice: Translate the following sentences into
standard categorical form.
1. There are birds that cannot sing. (Q.13, p236)
Some birds are animals that cannot sing.
2. The grass is always greener on the other side. (Q.16, p236)
All places on the other side are places where grass is greener.
3. Polar bears live in Canada. (Q.19, p236)
Some polar bears are animals which live in Canada.
4. If you don’t learn this lesson, you’re not here today.
All non-learners of this lesson are absentees today.
5. Not all friendly teachers are easy-going.
Some friendly teachers are not easy-going teachers.
Part 2: Translating into standard categorical form
Follow five tips:

Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject and predicate terms so that

they refer to categories.
Tip 2: Rephrase all nonstandard verbs.
Tip 3: Fill in any unexpressed quantifiers.
Tip 4: Translate singular statements into all, no or some statements.

Tip 5: Translate stylistic variants into the appropriate categorical form.

Example: Translating into standard categorical form

 Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject and

predicate terms so that they refer to categories.

Some roses are white.

Some roses are white flowers.

S P
Example: Translating into standard categorical form

Tip 2: Rephrase all nonstandard verbs.

Some students walk to school.

Some students are people who walk to school.

Q S C P
Example: Translating into standard categorical form

 Tip 3: Fill in any unexpressed quantifiers.

Vietnamese people are friendly.

Some Vietnamese people are friendly people.

Q S C P
Example: Translating into standard categorical form

 Tip 4: Translate singular statements as all or no

statements.

Paris is the capital of France.

All places identical with Paris are places that are

Q S C P
the capital of France.
Example: Translating into standard categorical form

 Tip 5: Translate stylistic variants into the

appropriate categorical form.
Every S is a P.
Any S is a P. All S are P.
S are always P.
Part 3: Testing validity of categorical syllogisms
using Venn Diagram
 Testing validity of a categorical syllogism

A categorical syllogism is deductive argument

with two premises and a conclusion.

Ex: All snakes (S) are reptiles (R).

All reptiles are cold-blooded animals (C).

So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals.
 Yes No

Sample 1

The two lower circles represent the

two categories in the conclusion.

All S are R. All snakes (S) are reptiles (R).

All R are C. All reptiles are cold-blooded animals (C).
All S are C. So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals.
There are three steps in this process:

1. Draw premise one.

2. Draw premise two.
3. Check the validity.
Step 1.
- Shade the area where
snakes are not reptiles.

All snakes (S) are reptiles (R). All S are R.

All reptiles are cold-blooded animals (C). All R are C.
So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals. All S are C.
Step 2.
- Shade the area where
reptiles are not cold-blooded
animals.

All snakes (S) are reptiles (R). All S are R.

All reptiles are cold-blooded animals (C). All R are C.
So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals.
All S are C.
Step 3.
- The conclusion tells us that all snakes
are cold-blooded animals. The area of
the Snake circle that does not overlap
the Cold-blooded circle must be shaded.

- The drawing clearly shows that the

conclusion is necessarily true.
This is a valid syllogism.

All snakes (S) are reptiles (R). All S are R.

All reptiles are cold-blooded animals (C). All R are C.
So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals.
All S are C.
Sample 2
No iPhones are Androids.
All Samsung Galaxys are Androids.
Some Samsung Galaxys are iPhones.
A

No iP are A
All G are A
Some G are iP

Invalid

G iP
Sample 3
E R
All educated people respect books.
Some bookstore personnel are not truly educated.
Some bookstore personnel don’t respect books.
B
Be clear that: All E are R
E= Some B are not E
Educated people Some B are not R
R = Book respecters
B = Bookstore personnel
All educated people are book respecters.
Some bookstore personnel are not educated people.
Some book personnel are not book respecters.
Sample 3
All E are R
Some B are not E
Some B are not R
E E

B R
B R
This is an invalid argument. The “X” shows that there
may be some B that are not R, but not necessarily.
 Sample 4
I M H
No islands are part of the mainland. Hawaii is an
island. Therefore, Hawaii is not on the mainland.

Be clear that:
I = Islands
M = Mainland places I
H = (Places identical to) Hawaii

No islands are mainland places.

All places identical to Hawaii are islands.
No places identical to Hawaii are mainland places.
H M
No I are M
All H are I
No H are M
Sample 4
No I are M
All H are I
No H are M
I I
Step 1 Step 2

H M
H M

Step 3: Check if the area in H not overlapping M is shaded?

Yes, this is a valid argument!
Sample 5

M C
Some modems are cable connections. Some cable
connections are digital. Thus, some modems are digital.
D

Some M are C
Some C are D
Some M are D
Sample 5 M C
Some modems are cable connections. Some cable
connections are digital. Thus, some modems are digital.
D
Some M are C
Translated into Some C are D
standard form Some M are D

C C
Invalid

X XX

M D M D
 If you apply the step-by-step-approach to using Venn
diagrams, you will quickly become an expert. Keep
these things in mind:

1. Put your syllogism in standard form first.

2. Be consistent in how you draw your diagram: always
shade the premises with No and All before putting the X
for Some.
3. Test validity by looking (not doing anything else) for the
necessity of the conclusion.
 MORE EXAMPLES
Translate the following into standard categorical form.

Then use Venn diagrams to test their validity.

 Translate the argument into standard form,
then test its validity
All my Critical Thinking students are bright guys and girls.
No bright guys and girls chitchat in class.
Therefore, no Critical Thinking students chitchat in class.
S B
All CT students are bright people.
C
No bright people are chitchatters.
Therefore, no CT students are chitchatters. B Valid
B

S C S C
 Translate the argument into standard form,
and test its validity
There are critical thinking students who can use Venn diagrams.
Some students who can use Venn diagrams fail to test validity.
So, some Critical Thinking students cannot test validity.
S U
Some Critical thinking students are Venn users.
T
Some Venn users are not validity testers.
So, some Critical Thinking students are not validity testers.
U U Invalid

X
X

S T S T
 Translate the argument into standard form,
and test its validity
Some students who register for Critical Thinking are frequently absent.
All students who are frequently absent cannot take the tests.
So, some students who register for Critical Thinking cannot take the test.
S A
Some CT students are frequent absentees.
T
No frequent absentees are test takers.
Therefore, some CT students are not test takers.
A A Valid

T S T
S
 SELF PRACTICE
1. There are e-mail messages that are not spell-checked. There are
interoffice memos that are e-mail messages. Therefore, there are
interoffice memos that are not spell-checked.
2. If anything is a truck, then it is not a car. There are Mazdas that are
trucks. It follows that there are Mazdas that are not cars.
3. Every person who drinks and drives is an irresponsible person. Not
every person who talks on a car phone is an irresponsible person.
Hence, not every person who talks on a car phone is a person who
drinks and drives.
4. Joey is in kindergarten. Only children in kindergarten fingerpaint in
school. So, Joey fingerpaints in school.
 Answer 1
There are e-mail messages that are not spell-checked. There
are interoffice memos that are e-mail messages. Therefore,
there are interoffice memos that are not spell-checked.

Some E are not S

Some M are E
Some M are not S
 Answer 2
 If anything is a truck, then it is not a car. There are
Mazdas that are trucks. It follows that there are Mazdas
that are not cars.

No T are C
Some M are T
Some M are not C
 Answer 3
 Every person who drinks and drives is an irresponsible
person. Not every person who talks on a car phone is an
irresponsible person. Hence, not every person who talks
on a car phone is a person who drinks and drives.

All D are I
Some T are not I
Some T are not D
 Answer 4
 Joey is in kindergarten. Only children in kindergarten
fingerpaint in school. So, Joey fingerpaints in school.

All J are K
All F are K
All J are F
 ASSIGNMENT
Use Venn diagrams to test the validity of the following arguments.

Instructions:
- Fill in the slide after each question with a standard
argument and a formula.
- Go to Paint to draw the Venn diagram.
 Question 1
Translate the following argument into the
standard form, then use the Venn diagram to test
its validity.

All students in my class use Facebook.

All people who use Facebook spend less time studying.
Therefore, no students in my class spend less time studying.
 Answer 1
Standard argument form:
All students are Facebook users.
All Facebook user are lazy learners.
Therefore, no students are lazy learners.

Venn diagram
Formula:
All S are U.
All U are L.
Invalid
No S are L
 Question 2
Translate the following argument into the
standard form, then use the Venn diagram to test
its validity.

All educational researchers contribute to educational revolution.

Some educational researchers are social scientists.
So, some social scientists contribute to educational revolution.
 Answer 2
Standard argument form:
All educational researchers are educational contributors.
Some educational researchers are social scientists.
Therefore, some social scientists are educational contributors.

Venn diagram
Formula:
All R are C.
Some R are S. Valid
Some S are C.
 Question 3
Translate the following argument into the
standard form, then use the Venn diagram to test
its validity.

All people who use the iPhone 6 are enthusiastic IT fans.

Some enthusiastic IT fans follow the trend.
So some people who use the iPhone 6 follow the trend.
 Answer 3
Standard argument form:
All iPhone 6 users are enthusiastic IT fans.
Some enthusiastic IT fans are trend followers.
Therefore, some iPhone 6 users are trend followers.

Venn diagram
Formula:
All U are F.
Some F are T.
Some U are T Invalid
 Question 4
Translate the following argument into the
standard form, then use the Venn diagram to test
its validity.

Some students are good English learners.

All good English learners are good students in their majors
So, some students are good students in their majors.
 Answer 4
Standard argument form:
Some students are good English learners.
All good English learners are professional students
Therefore, some students are professional students.

Venn diagram
Formula:
Some S are E.
All E are L Valid
Some S are L.
 Monday class: Sunday, March, 22

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