Nuclear Masses and Binding Energy

 We know that the mass of a stable nucleus is always less than the total mass of its constituent
nucleons by an amount , called mass deficiency. Because of it, energy is liberated when
individual nucleons bind together to form a nucleus.
 This energy, called the binding energy of the nucleus, decreases the mass of the nucleus relative
to that of the separated nucleons, according to mass-energy equivalence. Thus,

here is the mass of the isotope which includes the mass of Z electrons.
Also, note that we have neglected the binding energy of the electrons in the atom under
consideration since nuclear binding energies are several orders of magnitude greater than electronic
binding energies.
Nuclear Models 2
 Current research focuses on the constituent quarks and physicists have relied on a
multitude of models to explain nuclear force behavior.

1) Independent-particle models:
The nucleons move nearly independently in a common nuclear potential. The shell model
has been the most successful of these.
2) Strong-interaction models:
The nucleons are strongly coupled together. The liquid drop model has been successful in
explaining nuclear masses as well as nuclear fission.
Binding Energy Curve
 The diagram shows the trend in
binding energy per nucleon for all the
elements.
 The lightest nuclei have the smallest
binding energies per nucleon. This is
because the number of nearest-
neighbors is smaller than the
"saturation" value, i.e., the maximum
number consistent with the short range
of the strong force.
 The binding energy per nucleon
rapidly climbs, peaks at , and then
slowly declines.
N-Z graph (Distribution of N and Z values)
 From the curve, it
maybe noted that for
light nuclei, the neutron
and proton numbers are
roughly equal.
 However, for heavier
nuclei , since the factor
in the Coulomb
repulsion energy grows
rapidly as increases.
 Another tendency of
stable nuclei is to have
even values for both
and This tendency is
purely quantum
mechanical in origin.
N-Z graph

 There are no stable nuclei for Z > 83.

Nuclear Models 6
The nuclear potential felt by the neutron and the proton

 The difference of the shape between the proton and the neutron are due to the Coulomb interaction on the proton.
 Nuclei have a Fermi energy level which is the highest energy level filled in the nucleus.
 In the ground state of a nucleus, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are filled.
The Liquid Drop Model
 Niels Bohr and John Wheeler developed the liquid drop
model to understand the fission process. According to this
model, firing a neutron at a nucleus is analogous to
disturbing a droplet of water.
 The analogy works because short-range forces between
nucleons in a nucleus are similar to the attractive forces
between water molecules in a water droplet. In particular,
forces between nucleons at the surface of the nucleus
result in a surface tension similar to that of a water droplet.
 A neutron fired into a uranium nucleus can set the nucleus
into vibration. If this vibration is violent enough, the
nucleus divides into smaller nuclei and also emits two or
three individual neutrons.
 LIQUID DROP MODEL

 The nuclei of all elements are considered to be behave like a liquid drop of
incompressible liquid of very high density.
 In an equilibrium state the nuclei of atoms remain spherically symmetric under the
action of strong attractive nuclear forces just like the drop of a liquid which is spherical
due to surface tension.
 The density of nucleus is independent of its size just like the density of liquid which is
also independent of size.
 The nucleons of the nucleus move about within a spherical enclosure called the nuclear
potential barrier just like the movement of the molecules of a liquid within a spherical
drop liquid.
 The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is constant just like the latent heat of
vaporization of liquid.
•Volume energy, when an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior
nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.

•Surface energy corrects for the previous assumption made that every nucleon interacts with the same number o f other
nucleons. This term is negative and proportional to the surface area, and is therefore roughly equivalent to liquid 
surface tension.
•Coulomb energy, the potential energy from each pair of protons. As this is a repulsive force, the binding energy is reduced.

•Asymmetry energy, which accounts for the Pauli exclusion principle. Unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply
filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.

•Pairing energy, which accounts for the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more
stable than an odd number due to spin coupling.
Semi-empirical mass formula
 The shape of the nucleus is determined mainly by three factors, the volume energy, the surface energy
and the Coulomb energy.
Volume energy
 The fact that binding energy per nucleon is almost constant suggests that the nucleon interacts with
their nearest neighbours. Hence, the main contribution to the binding energy of the nucleus comes
from a term which is proportional to the mass number , since volume is also proportional to . This term
is referred to as the volume energy term:

where is a constant.
Semi-empirical mass formula
Surface energy
 A nucleon well inside the nucleus is attracted from all sides by the neigbouring nucleons. However, the
one near the surface is attracted from one side only. Therefore, the binding energy of the nucleon on
the surface will be smaller than that of one well inside the nucleus.
 In light nuclei, there is a large fraction of surface nucleons compared to that in medium and heavy
nuclei. Hence the binding energy is small for light nuclei.
 Here the surface energy of nucleus is analogous to the surface tension of a liquid and is represented
by:

where is a constant.
Semi-empirical mass formula
Coulomb energy
 This contribution is because of Coulomb repulsion. Each of the protons in the nucleus feels the
coulomb repulsion from the protons, which tends to lower the binding energy. The effect of this
Coulomb interaction on the binding energy is represented by the term:

where is a constant.
 The gradual decrease of binding energy per nucleon for heavy nuclei is mainly due to this Coulomb
repulsion.
Semi-empirical mass formula
Asymmetry energy
 In the absence of the Coulomb forces, the binding energy of the nucleus of a given is minimum
when . The increase in energy required to have unequal number of protons or neutrons is known as the
asymmetry energy. After detailed study of this asymmetry effect, it was shown that:

where is a constant.
 This term decreases the binding energy due to excess number of neutrons over protons in the nucleus.
This term is zero when .
Semi-empirical mass formula
Pairing energy
 Tendency of a nuclei to have even number of protons and neutrons is because of this pairing energy
term. Nuclei with even number of protons and neutrons are the most abundant and probably the most
stable. The pairing term maximizes the binding energy if both and are even.
 In other words, it decreases the mass if both and are even and increases the mass if both and are
odd. The origin of this term is based on quantum mechanical property of indistinguishability of
identical particles.
 After detailed study of this pairing effect, it was shown that:

where , if Z and N both are even

, if Z is even and N is odd or Z is odd and N is
even
, if Z and N are odd
Semi-empirical mass formula
 Summing up all the five terms, the final formula for the binding energy is given by:

 The constants to are obtained from an empirical fitting of the measured masses.
The figure shows the contribution from each term separately
Nuclear Models 17
 Energy-level diagrams for 12C and 16O.
Note that the
 Both are stable because they are p energy
even-even. levels are
higher

Case 1: If we add one

proton to 12C to make unstable

Filling up energy
levels up to the
Fermi level Case 2: If we add one
stable
neutron to 12C to make 13C:
Nuclear Models 18
 when we add another neutron to produce 14C, we find it is unstable.

 neutron energy levels are lower in energy than the corresponding proton ones.
 SHELL MODEL

 The basic assumption of the liquid drop model is that each nucleon in a nucleus interact
only with its nearest neighbours, like a molecule in a liquid.

 In shell model, each nucleon interact chiefly with a general force field produced by all
the other nucleon.

 The atoms with 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 electrons have all their electron shell
completely filled.

 In the same way, nuclei that have 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 protons and neutrons are
more abundant than other nuclei of similar mass number, suggesting their structure are
more stable.
 SHELL MODEL

 It has been observed that nuclei having either the number of protons Z or number of
neutrons N=A-Z equal to one of the numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 are more stable
than their neighbours. These numbers are called magic numbers.
 MAIN ASSUMPTIONS

 Nucleon forms subshells and shells with in the nucleus.

 The shell within the nucleus get closed with a suitable number of nucleons.

 Each nucleon is supposed to possess a spin angular momentum of ħ/2 and orbital
angular momentum of 1ħ.
 This theory assumes that LS coupling holds only for the very lightest nuclei in which
the l values are necessarily small in their normal configuration.
 The heavier nuclei exhibit j-j coupling.
 SHELL MODEL

 It is assumed that the nucleons move in its orbit within the nucleus, independently of all
other nucleons.

 The orbit is determined by a potential energy function V(r) which represent the average
effect of all interaction with other nucleons, and is same for each particle.

 Each nucleon is regarded as an independent particle and the interaction between a

nucleons is considered to be a small perturbation on the interaction between a nucleon
and the potential field.

 There is direct analogy between the theoretical treatment of a nucleus and an electron
in an atom
 Magic Numbers

The magic numbers:

2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 Neutron or Proton or Both
• 15N – magic neutron number
• 58Ni – magic proton number
• 40Ca – doubly magic
• In the case of atom
• 2n*n 2, 8,18, 32,50 Electrons

• Extra Stability for these Nuclei or Atoms

 MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS OF SHELL MODEL

 It explains magic number.

 It explains the magnetic moment of some nuclei nicely.

 It explains successfully the ground state spin.

 It explains the phenomenon of nuclear isomerism.

 It explains the great stability and high binding energy.