Artificial Intelligence (AI)

3170716

Unit-4:
Symbolic Reasoning
Under Uncertainty

Dr. Gopi Sanghani

Computer Engineering Department
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
gopi.sanghani@darshan.ac.in
9825621471
 Outline
Looping
 Introduction to Reasoning
 Symbolic Reasoning
 Introduction to Non-monotonic Reasoning
 Logic For Non-monotonic Reasoning
Introduction to Reasoning
Introduction
1. Pens cost more than pencils.
2. Pens cost less than eraser.
3. Erasers cost more than pencils and pens.
4. If the first two statements are true, the third statement is True

Statements:
5. All C are J.
6. All J are B. Reasoning
7. No B is R.
8. Conclusions:
I. All B are C.
II. Some J are C Only conclusion II is true.
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Reasoning
 Reasoning is the act of deriving a conclusion from certain properties using a given
methodology.
 Reasoning is a process of thinking; reasoning is logically arguing; reasoning is drawing
inference.
 When a system is required to do something, that it has not been explicitly told how to do, it
must reason. It must figure out what it needs to know from what it already knows.
 Many types of Reasoning have been identified and recognized, but many questions regarding
their logical and computational properties still remain controversial.
 The popular methods of Reasoning include abduction, induction, model-based, explanation and
confirmation.
 All of them are intimately related to problems of belief revision and theory development,
knowledge absorption, discovery and learning.

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Uncertainty in Reasoning
 The world is an uncertain place; often the Knowledge is imperfect which causes uncertainty.
Therefore, reasoning must be able to operate under uncertainty.
 AI systems must have ability to reason under conditions of uncertainty.

Uncertainties Desired action

Incompleteness of Knowledge Compensate for lack of knowledge

Resolve ambiguities and

Inconsistencies of Knowledge
contradictions

Changing Knowledge Update the knowledge base over time

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Monotonic Reasoning
 In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we
add some other information to existing information in our knowledge base.
 In monotonic reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can
be derived.
 To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts only,
and it will not be affected by new facts.
 Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get changed,
so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.
 Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is
monotonic.
 Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

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Non-monotonic Reasoning
 Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more
knowledge into our knowledge base.
 Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.
 Non-monotonic Reasoning (NMR) is based on supplementing absolute truth with beliefs.
 These tentative beliefs are generally based on default assumptions that are made in light of
lack of evidence.
 A non-monotonic reasoning (NMR) system tracks a set of tentative beliefs and revises those
beliefs when knowledge is observed or derived.
 Human perceptions for various things in daily life, is a general example of non-monotonic
reasoning.
 Human reasoning is not monotonic.

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Logics for Non-monotonic Reasoning
 A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic.
 Logic is non-monotonic if the truth of a proposition may change when new information
(axioms) is added.
 It allows a statement to be retracted.
 It is used to formalize believable reasoning.
 Suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:
Birds can fly
Penguins cannot fly
Tweety is a bird

 So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Tweety can fly.
 However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base " Tweety is a penguin", which
concludes " Tweety cannot fly", so it invalidates the above conclusion.

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Methods of Reasoning
 There are three kinds of logical reasoning: Deduction, Induction, Abduction.

Deduction Induction Abduction

Example: "When it rains, the grass
Example: "The grass has been wet gets wet. The grass is wet, it must
Example: "When it rains, the grass
every time it has rained. Thus, when it have rained."
gets wet. It rains. Thus, the grass is
rains, the grass gets wet." • Means determining the
wet."
• This means in determining the rule; precondition; it uses the conclusion
• This means in determining the
it learns the rule after numerous and the rule to support that the
conclusion; it is using rule and its
examples of conclusion following precondition could explain the
precondition to make a conclusion.
the precondition. conclusion.
• Applying a general principle to a
• Derives a general principle from • Guessing that some general
special case.
special cases principle can relate a given pattern
• It uses theory to make predictions
• From observations to of cases
• Usage: Inference engines, Theorem
generalizations to knowledge • Extract hypotheses to form a
proving, planning.
• Usage: Neural nets, Bayesian nets, tentative theory
Pattern recognition • Usage: Knowledge discovery,
Statistical methods, Data mining.
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Thank You!