Dum spiro, spero

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
(respiratory
apparatus, ventilatory
system)
is a system consisting of
specific organs and
structures used for gas
exchange

Kyrgyz State Medical Academy

Department of Histology,
Cytology and Embryology
Lecturer : Associate Professor
Niyazova Farida
 Composition

ays
1. Conducting Portion:

airw
system of cavities and tubes
that conduct air into the lungs:
nasal cavity,
nasopharynx,
larynx,
trachea,
bronchial tree (extra- and
intrapulmonary bronchi).
2. Respiratory Portion - system where the
exchange of respiratory gases occurs - acinus acinus

3. Ventilating mechanism - thoracic musculo-skeletal

apparatus
 Airways
layered type

Layers:

 Mucous membrane
 Submucosa
 Fibrous-cartilaginous
 Adventitious

In the mucous membrane:

• Epithelium
• Lamina propria
• Muscle plate
 Functions:
Respiratory:
regulation of the arrival and holding of air,
cleaning and warming of air,
external respiration, gas exchange (air transport to the lungs,
absorption of O2, removal of CO2).
Non respiratory:
thermoregulation,
blood depot,
endocrine,
regulation:
- blood coagulation (thromboplastin and heparin);
- blood pressure;
- water-salt and lipid exchange;
- synthesis and inactivation of some hormones;
Participation in
voice formation,
olfaction,
immune defense.
 Development
Nasal cavity
- from the upper part of the oral cavity.
Sources:
epithelium - ectoderm,
Other tissue - mesenchyme

Larynx, trachea and lungs

- from ventral evagination of the
foregut.
Sources:
epithelium - prechordal plate,
Other tissue - mesenchyme
pleura - mesoderm of splanchnotomes
 The course of development
ectoderm
Stage I
neural
esophagus Stage II
tube
chord

foregut
bronchi
sulcus laryngo-trachealis right
left
a bud - true lung
ventral evagination
primordium
28-35 day –
3rd week Trachea
bifurcates -
right and left
lungs
 Stage III Stage IV

right left
right left

5-6-th month –
tubular stage:
10-12th week - glandular stage: a development of
bronchial tree is formed bronchioles and a
network of capillaries.

from the 6th month until the birth

– saccular-alveolar stage, alveolar
courses and sacs are formed
Foetal lung, human - H&E
The lung tissue from the late canalicular period. Mucous connective tissue fills fairly
wide spaces between the terminal sacs. Both slides contain developing bronchi and
cartilage

A small section of developing lung including terminal sacs and connective

tissue at high magnification
Respiratory organs at the time of birth are immature. Up to 7
years, intensively growing and differentiating, in the future only
an increase in size occurs.
Before birth, the alveoli slept. After the first breath, they fill with
air and straighten out

Fetal lung Lung after inspiration

 Nasal cavity

Nasal vestibule Proper nasal cavity

The first ~1.5 cm of the conductive
portion following the nostrils. 
Epithelium keratinised stratified
squamous. Respiratory Olfactory
In lamina propria - hairs (filter large part part
particulate matter), sebaceous glands.
 2
Proper nasal cavity 1 3 4
duct

Respiratory part
Mucous membrane (MM):
Epithelium - pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
(respiratory epithelium) Elastic f
Cells:
Ciliated (1)
mucous glands
Goblet (2)
Basal (3)
Microvilli (4) Functions:
cleaning,
Lamina propria (Lp)
moisturizing,
loose connective tissue, elastic fibers,
warming
blood vessels (veins - cavernous bodies),
mucous glands. the airе
 respiratory region of the nasal cavity
Inferior Concha, human - Alcian blue & van Gieson
Nasal Cavity, Olfactory Region,
rat - Alcian blue & van Gieson
Respiratory area of the
human nasal cavity.
H&E, х 280. 1

2
1 - ciliated
pseudostratified columnar
epithelium with goblet
cells; 3

2 - lamina propria; 4
3 - terminal sections of
glands;
4 - blood vessels;
5 - hyaline cartilage of the 5
nasal septum.
Olfactory area of the nasal mucosa.
H&E, х 400.

1 - olfactory epithelium;
a - olfactory cells;
b - supporting epithelial
cells;
2 - basal membrane;
3 - lamina propria;
4 - glands of the olfactory
region;
5 - blood vessels;
6 - hyaline cartilage of the
nasal septum.
 slime
OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM

Olfactory cilia
Olfactory
mace

Dendrite Supporting cell

Olfactory cell

Basal cell
Axons
basal membrane

Bowman's gland
Olfactory area on the surface of the upper and middle
nasal concha.

Mucous membrane (MM):

Epithelium - ciliated pseudostratified columnar
Cells: 3 types
1. Olfactory (ws olfactory mace and cilia)
2. Supporting (ws microvilli.
3. Basal cells.
Lamina propria
loose connective tissue, elastic fibers, blood vessels
(cavernous veins), mucous Bowman's glands.
Functions:
perception and analysis of odoriferous substances,
chemical stimuli of the environment,
food intake.
 Larynx (voice box) laryngeal cavity
It has the shape of a funnel.
In the narrowing of the infection, edema occurs
in the submucosal membrane, spasm of the
musculature - stenosis.
Functions:
  air conditioning and conditioning;
  protecting the trachea against food
aspiration
frontal incision;
sound formation; back view
sagittal
  secretory;
incision
  barrier-protective.

vestibular folds (false vocal cords)

ciliated pseudostratified epithelium,
smooth muscle cells in lamina propria

vocal folds (true vocal cords) stratified

squamous epithelium, fibers of striated
muscle tissue in lamina propria
Vocal cords stretched between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages,
limit the voice gap, the vocal cords in women are shorter than in men,
so they have a high voice. Genetic factors cause variations between
members of the same sex, with males' and females' voices being
categorized into voice types.

Vocal folds (open) Vocal folds speaking

Larynx Epithelium - pseudostratified
columnar epithelium – 4 tipe of

Mucous membrane
cells
(vocal folds - stratified
squamous epithelium fibers )

lf Lamina propria (LP)- loose

connective tissue, elastic fibers,
p-mg protein-mucous glands,
lymphoid follicles.
thyroid and
cartilaginous cartilage
Fibrous- of hyaline cartilage,
cartilaginous wedge-shaped and
cartilaginous
cartilages of elastic
cartilage;

Adventitious loose connective tissue,

vessels, nerve fibers
 Trachea

I - Mucous membrane
I II – Submucous
II membrane
III - Fibrous-cartilaginous
membrane
IIIA III A - perichondrium
IV - Adventitious
III

IV
Trachea, human - H&E
respiratory epithelium,
basement membrane,

elastic lamina (not visible)

submucosal glands (both

serous and mucous parts),

perichondrium,

tracheal cartilage
Trachea
ciliate, goblet,
MM Epithelium - endocrine and basal
pseudostratified cells
columnar – 4 tipe of
cells;
LP- connective tissue,
lymphoid follicles;
muscular plate -
smooth muscle cells
SMM – connective
tissue + protein-
mucous glands.

FC: non-closed
cartilaginous rings
(hyaline cartilage) +
dense connective
tissue
The free dorsal ends of the cartilages are
connected by bands of smooth muscle
(trachealis muscle) and connective tissue
Adventitious
fibres
 Epithelial cells of the airway mucosa

1 - ciliated epitheliocytes; 2 - endocrine cells; 3 - goblet exocrine cells; 4 -

cambial cells; 5 - non-desiccated cells; 6 - nerve fiber; 7 - Clara cells; 8 - basal
membrane; 9 - chemosensitive cells
 Cilia axoneme
CILIATED COLUMNAR CELL
Tall or low columnar cells, have approx.
300 cilia, which flicker (up to 250 / min) in
the direction opposite to the movement
m of the inhaled air in a weakly alkaline
GA environment at t 18-33 ° C. Beating of the
basal
cilia moves mucous forward.
n body
Function - protective, air purification
from dust and microorganisms Cilia
GER

secretory
granules GOBLET CELL - MUCOUS CELLS
• These produce mucous which trap dust particles.
• Present throughout except bronchiole.
unicellular endoepithelial glands. In contrast to
• Apical – ciliated cells, the number of mucous cells increases
mucin
during chronic irritation of the air passages.
n vacuoles
Function - secrete a mucous contains Ig,
• Secretes Ig A
moisturizes the epithelium, provides adhesion of
antibody
dust particles, detoxifies microorganisms.
 SMALL GRANULE CELL / Kulchitsky cell
• Rounded shape, dense cored vesicles
GA • Function
- neuroendocrine cell
GER
– Regulates bronchial secretion
n – Smooth muscle contraction
– Ciliary action
secretory – Secrete serotonin, may stimulate the
vesicles bronchial muscle..

Blood
vessel

Langerhans cells
dendritic, (burr-free)
have processes, contain lamellar granules.
Epithelial macrophage, antigen-presenting
n m cell. They produce cytokines, tumor necrosis
factor, stimulate T-lymphocytes.
m
GA GER
Antigen recognition by Langerhans cells present in the epithelium and
initiation of T-cell response. (Abbreviations; PAMPs – Pathogen-associated
molecular patterns, MHC – Major histocompatibility antigen, IL – Interleukin,
TNF – Tumor necrosis factor, TGF – Transforming growth factor, GM-CSF –
Granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor, TCR – T cell receptor)
 microvilli
Chemosensitive cells
BRUSH CELL (Tuft cells)
• These are sensory in function
• Slender cells with microvilli.
GER
• They are in contact with afferent nerve fibers and
so are consider as sensory receptor in function. )
n - on the surface of the microvilli, chemoreceptors -
control the concentration and composition of air.

BASAL CELL
• These are stem cells.
• These cells are mitotic stem cells for other
type of epithelial cells.
• Small rounded cells are in contact with
basal lamina.
 CLARA CELL
Only in respiratory bronchiole
secretory • Similar to type II alveolar cell
vesicles • Cuboidal non ciliated cells, has blunt
projections
GA • It contain electron dense secretory granules
and many lysosomes.
n • Important source of surfactant

GER
 Bronchial tree

Bronchi
1.Main
2.Equity
3.Zonal
4.Segmented
5.Subsegmental

1.Large - 15-5 mm,

2.Average - 5-2 mm,
3.Small - 2-1 mm,
4.Terminal bronchioles - <1 mm
 Large bronchus
MM Epithelium - pseudostratified
columnar – 4 tipe of cells;
LP- connective tissue, lymphoid
follicles;
muscular plate - smooth muscle
cells
SMM – LCT +
non-closed
protein-mucous
cartilaginous rings (
glands.

FC: closed
cartilaginous
rings or plates
(hyaline cartilage)
+ dense
connective tissue

Adventitious
Large bronchus
differences from the tracheal wall:
MM total (expressed muscular plate), collected in longitudinal
folds.
FC closed in the main bronchi, intermittent (cartilaginous plates or
islets) in the lobar and segmental bronchi.
 Medium bronchus
MM: folds
Ciliary epithelium;
LP - LCT, slime-protein gland, lymph.
follicles;

MP - SMC - 2 circular beams of

mutually opposite direction,
loose connective tissue
protein-mucous glands

FC: islets of
elastic cartilage

Adventitious
 Small bronchus
MM: brightly expressed folds. The
epithelium is single-layer, two-row, cubic,
ciliate.
LP - lct, glands are not present, a lymph.
follicles;

MP - SMC - well developed

Adventitious

SM and FC are not. If pathology can spasmodic (for example,

with asthma) or expand (drugs that stimulate breathing, the
effect of adrenaline with a sense of joy).

Two more types of cells are added: Clara cells-

synthesize an enzyme that breaks the surfactant and
dendritic cells. Goblet cells are single, many
lymphocytes and plasmocytes. Neuroendocrine
complexes
changes in bronchi in bronchial asthma

Bronchus in BA
1 - spasm
Normal bronchus
2 - edema of the mucosa
3 - hypersecretion
 Terminal bronchioles

Mucous membrane: folds

epithelium single-layered, single-
rowed cubic. There are no goblet
cells.
own plate - connective tissue ws
lymphoid follicles, no glands;
Muscle plate - individual bundles of
lymphoid smooth muscle cells.
follicles muscle
cells Adventism is very subtle
  Trachea, Large Middle Small bronchi Terminal bronchi
principle bronchi bronchi bronchi
Ciliated Multirowed Multirowed Multirowed Birowed Unirowed
epithelium
Composition A.Basic cells: ciliated, goblet, inserted A. A+B+ Brush, secretory
of epithelium (short,long) B. brush (Clara)
B.Minoris cells: endocrinocytes, Langerhance Ciliated,basal
cells, M-cells)
Lamina Loose conn.t.,rich in longitudinally oriented elastic fibres(providing stretching of trachea
propria &bronchi),lymph.follicles,vascular plexuses,nerve endings
Muscular Separate bunches of myocytes Thin unified Weight of Weight of muscular Separate bunches
lamina muscular muscular lamina is max of myocytes
lamina lamina is
increased

Submu-cosa Is located in front of the cartilages, Is between There is no submucosa

Containing mucous-protein glands cartilages
Fibro- Non-closed rings of hyaline Large Small There are no fibro- There are no fibro-
cartilag- cartilage,connected by bunches plates islets of cartilagenous layer cartilagenous layer
enous layer of smooth myocytes by free ends of elastic
&by ligamenta one to other-in hyaline cartilage
trachea. cartilag
In principle br.-closed rings:right e
br.-6-8,left br.-9-12.
 
Adventitia Is present Is present Is present Is low-developed Is low-developed

Inner surface Almost smooth Low- Is folded Low-winding Low-winding

winding
Respiratory department - lung parenchyma
 Respiratory department
The structural and functional unit is the acinus.
This system of alveoli located in the walls of
respiratory bronchioles 1,2,3 orders, alveolar
courses and alveolar sacs.
bronchial terminal 12-18 acini - lobule.

respiratory bronchioles of 1 order

bronchioles of 2 order

alveoli
bronchioles
of 3 order

alveolar sacs
alveolar
courses
Respiratory department

Respiratory bronchioles are lined with cubic epithelium. Most cells are
desalinated, but there are ciliate cells and Clara cells. The underlying layer of
smooth myocytes is very thin, intermittent. Alveolar courses have a diameter
of about 100 microns. Their walls are lined with a flat epithelium. The entrance
to each alveolus from the alveolar course is surrounded by thin beams of
smooth myocytes.
Acinus of the lung. H&Eosin. Mean magnification

1 - alveolar sacs; 2 - interalveolar septa

Cells of respiratory epithelium
Alveolus - an open vial, through
wall of which is gas exchange,
the amount of 600-700 million in both lungs, the
surface area is 100 m2

Diameter
in the newborn ≈150 μm,
adult - 280 μm,
in the elderly -300-350 μm. A A

Alveolar epithelium: AS
Respiratory epitheliocytes - alveolocytes І A
Secretory (granular) epithelial cells -

alveolocytes ІІ

Photomicrograph showing an alveolar sac with adjacent alveoli. This photomicrograph shows the
terminal components of the respiratory system, namely, the alveolar sac (AS) and the surrounding
alveoli (A). The alveoli are surrounded and separated from one another by a thin connective tissue
layer, the interalveolar septa, containing blood capillaries. On the right is the lung surface, which is
covered by visceral pleura containing simple squamous epithelium and an underlying layer of
connective tissue. x360.
Alveocytes of type 1
(respiratory)

The form is flattened.

2 parts:
central thickened, contains nucleus
and organelles;
Peripheral - thin, has the
appearance of cytoplasmic plates
(20 microns in both directions) on
the basement membrane, contains
bubbles, through which passive
diffusion of gases is carried out.
Function: gas exchange. Alveocytes of type 1
Alveocytes of type 2 (secretory)

The shape is oval.

Large cells with numerous organelles.
High metabolic activity. Contain lamellar
bodies, which are excreted by exocytosis
and form a surfactant on the surface of
the alveoli. Develop factors of epithelial
growth. They play the role of cambial
elements.
Альвеолоцит ІІ типа
Альвеоциты 3 типа –
щеточные
have on the apical surface of microvilli, in
the cytoplasm - vesicles and bundles of
microfibrils.
Functions:
fluid absorption and concentration of
surfactant;
chemoreception;
neurosecretory.
Control the concentration and composition
of the surfactant and the metabolic activity
of the alveoli, bronchiolar epithelium,
releasing biogenic amines and peptide
hormones.
Well studied in rats. At the person are not
investigated.
 Alveolar macrophage

Macrophages account for 10-15% of all

cells in the alveolar septa. Process
form, have many microclades, mobile -
migrate through the pores.  

Functions:
protection from contamination and infection
synthesis of antimicrobial factors
Absorption of excess surfactant, its oxidation,
the release of large amounts of heat and warming
of air
Bacteria in the alveolar space are
covered with a surfactant film, which
activates the macrophage. The cell
forms cytoplasmic outgrowths, by
means of which phagocytosed
bacteria germinated by surfactant.
Kona Pore
holes between the
cavities of the
alveoli (Ø 2-10 μm).
Appear at the age of
6 months.
In the adult's lungs -
20 pores per 1
alveolus.

Functions: The structure of the wall of the alveoli with

interalveolar Kohn pores (indicated by arrows).? AI -
alveolocyte type I, AII - alveolocyte type II, K -
collateral gas capillary. TEM. x2300.

exchange.
 alveolocyte of type II

Alveolus
Alveocytes of type 1

macrophage

capillary
 Surfactant alveolar complex

It includes 2 phases - membrane and liquid.

alveolar lumen
membrane - apophase - several
layers of membranes from
phospholipids and proteins
Liquid - hypophase - colloidal
solution of phospholipids and
glycoproteins

capillary lumen

1 - lumen of the alveoli; 2 - epitheliocyte; 3 - lumen of

the capillary; 4 - endotheliocyte; 5 - basal membrane
(common for epithelium and endothelium); 6 -
membrane phase; 7 - hypophase
Surfactant functions:

1) maintains the surface tension of the alveoli,

counteracts the collapse during exhalation;
2) prevents adhesion (atelectasis) of the alveoli;
3) important for the first inhalation of a newborn;
4) protects the alveoli from the action of peroxides
and oxidants;
5) facilitates the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli
into the blood;
6) increases the LIFE;
7) prevents fluid from entering the lumen of the
alveoli
8) has bactericidal properties; participation in
immune defense.
 An aerughematic barrier  — a set of structures through which
gases diffuse in the lungs.
form:
alveolar cells of type I (0.2 μm),
total basal membrane (0.1 μm),
the flattened part of the capillary endothelial cell (0.2 μm).
In total, this is about 0.5 μm.
 Pulmonary Circulation
The right side of the heart deals with pulmonary circulation. At the end of systemic circulation, the
veins take blood back to the heart through the vena cava.
The vena cava fills the right atrium with blood, which then ejects blood into the right ventricle by
passing through the tricuspid valve. After blood fills in the right ventricle, it contracts and pumps the
blood through the pulmonary valve, and into the pulmonary arteries.
There are two pulmonary arteries (one for each lung) that bring the deoxygenated blood to the lungs
through the hilium. The arteries branch into the capillaries of the alveoli. Capillaries are the thinnest
and smallest type of blood vessel, and they supply oxygen to individual tissues everywhere in the
human body.
Gas exchange occurs by passive diffusion in the alveoli, so that dissolved oxygen enters the
capillaries, while carbon dioxide leaves pulmonary circulation. The oxygenated blood then leaves the
lungs through pulmonary veins (also contained in the hilium), which return the blood to the left side of
the heart, completing the cycle of pulmonary circulation.
This blood then enters and fills
inside the left atrium, which pumps
it through the mitral valve (also
called bicuspid) into the left
ventricle. The blood fills inside the
left ventricle and is then pumped
through the aortic valve into the
aorta, which marks the beginning
of systemic circulation.
Systemic circulation and
pulmonary circulation form the
overall cycle of the circulatory
system: transporting oxygen
throughout the body.
Age changes
In the postnatal period - the growth and differentiation of the lung.
The most intensive growth is up to 7 years, less intensive during
puberty (12–15 years), in the next 10 years only an increase in the
volume of the alveoli is observed. After 70 years - involution: - the
epithelium becomes thinner and the basement membrane of the
epithelium thickens; - the glands begin to atrophy, their secret
thickens; - the number of smooth muscle cells in the walls of the
pathways decreases; - cartilage is calcified, especially in the region
of the root of the lungs; walls of respiratory bronchioles atrophy and
sclerosis; - the walls of the alveoli become thinner, the elasticity of
the walls decreases. Restriction of lung tissue mobility impairs gas
exchange.

Regeneration
Intensive in the mucous membrane. When a part of the lung is
removed, compensatory hypertrophy occurs in the remaining part
(the volume of the alveoli increases by 3-4 times). The number of
vessels providing nutrition and respiration increases.
 Pulmonary pleura (Visceral pleura)
The outer surface of the entire lung parenchyma is covered by the visceral
pleura.  The visceral pleura is composed of a thin, loose connective tissue.  The
outer surface is lined by specialized squamous-like cells, mesothelium. 
Mesothelial cells appear histologically similar to epithelial but are mesoderm
derived, and express proteins consistent with both mesenchymal (stromal) cells
and epithelial cells.  The mesothelium produces a lubricating substance that
acts to reduce friction between the visceral pleura and the pleura coating the
thoracic body wall (parietal pleura) during respiration.  The connective tissue of
the visceral pleura is contiguous with the connective tissue of the pulmonary
lobular septae that course through the pulmonary parenchyma.  The visceral
pleural connective tissue is typically thicker in large animal domestic species
than small animal domestic species.

The pleura surrounds the outer (visceral) surface of

the pulmonary parenchyma, separating it, in vivo,
from the pleural space. The pleura consists of
connective tissue (CT) interspersed with
lymphatics and vessels (not typically apparent).
The outer surface is lined by a single layer of
flattened epithelium, called mesothelium (arrows).
Thank you for attention!

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