CHAPTER 1

The Highway
and its
Development
1.1 Brief History of
Roads

Mesopotamia
- early roads with hard surfaces
- 3,500 B.C.
 1.1 Brief History of
Roads

Mediterranean Island of Crete

- stone surface roads
- similarly constructed those in Western
Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and
the Incas of Central South America.
 
 
The early road systems were constructed primarily for
the following purposes:
 
1.For the movement of armies in their conquest and for
defense against invasion.

2. For transport of food and trade of goods between

neighboring towns and cities.
Romans
- discovered cement
- expanded their vast empire
through extensive road networks
radiating in many directions from the
capital city of Rome.
 
Characteristically, Roman Roads were laid on three
courses
 
1. A layer of small broken stones.
2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar
and then compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set
and bedded with cement mortar.
17th Century

- French Engineer
- "Father of modern road building.”
- He introduced new methods of construction
and maintenance of stone roads.
- He improved the crown, the drainage, and the
grade of the road, including the stone
foundation by reducing the depth of broken
stones to 25 centimeters.
- Tresaguet made it possible for Napoleon to Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796)
build the massive highways of France
17th Century

- Scottish Engineer born in Westminster Abbey

- president and founder of the Institute of Civil
Engineer
- introduced some improvements in the
construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet
- The road foundation course of Telford was made
of stones having 3 inches minimum thickness, 5
inches breadth and 7 inches height
- Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top
voids and trued the surfaces by breaking the
projecting points. Thomas Telford (1757-1834)
- Telford employed a flat sub-grade, providing
slight crown using stones of varying sizes.
England followed the ongoing
highway development started by
France.

- Scottish Engineer road builder and

contemporary of Telford

- The Macadam road concept

named after him, was developed
and widely accepted. John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836)
I.2 Early Laws that
Regulates Roadway
 I.2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory

duties for the people to perform, namely:

1. To repair the roads and bridges.

2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions.
I.2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:

1. The king's Highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies any

portion thereof, by exceeding the boundaries of his land, is
considered to have encroached on the king himself. Roads are
for public use. All persons who want to use them may do so.

2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain

the road, clip any bordering hedges, and refrain from plowing
and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer than the specified
distance from the center of the road.
I.2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

Government Concept
`

-upholding the right of the public to use them without

interference. Since the road is intended for the benefit of
the people, for return, it becomes their duty to protect
and maintain the roadway.
1.3 Highways in the
Philippines
 1900
- transportations in this country
depended largely on trails, waterways,
railroad, earth roads and partially
graveled roads.
- Highway in the Philippines at that time
is nothing more than a dream to most
Filipinos.
- The American government initiated the
development of roadways in the
Philippines, connecting towns, cities
and provinces.
- The popular Macadam road type was
introduced. It gained wide acceptance
because of the abundant supply of
stones and gravel.
 
- After the Second World War, the new
independent Philippine government continued
the rehabilitation and construction of roads and
bridges, through the reparations and war
damages paid by the Japanese government.
Other financial grants and aids received from
the U.S. government were used in the
construction and rehabilitation of roads and
bridges.
  
 
50yrs later… major highways and
expressways were constructed through the
financial assistance and loans from Elements of
Roads and Highways foreign banks.

Recent Land transportation records revealed

that, more than 80,000 brand new, vehicles
were added to their lists every year. At an
average of 5.00 meters road occupancy by
these vehicles, the DPWH must open 400
kilometers new roads every year. Traffic
problems are expected to worsen year after
year.
 
The year 1960 to early part of 1980
AUTORNOBILE AGE

- Cars were no longer regarded as luxury item

but a necessity in transporting people and
goods, a necessity for survival.
- Government new concept of development is
to get the farmers out of the mud.
- It was during this decade that road
construction becomes a matter of priority of
the government under the slogan: " This
nation is on Wheels”.
1.4 Planning Difficulties
•Development and maintenance of roads
and highways is a continuing process
alongside with the technological
advancement. New equipment and
management techniques revolutionized,
the construction and maintenance
methods. Advance knowledge in the field
of soils, highway materials, and designs
were adopted for reliability and economic
considerations.

•Engineers are conscious of the need for

roadways to be safe, useful, and
attractive. Unfortunately, highway
planners are confronted with problems
categorized as follows:
1 . Financial
2. Political and ,
3. Technical
The present economic condition is related to the government budgetary expenditures for payment of foreign
debt amortization amounting to billions of pesos a month.

Appropriations of funds for road constructions and maintenance, meet severe difficulties that sometimes,
highway development plans are shelves temporarily for lack of funds.

Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully studied by technical experts are twisted, or flexed
down by political muscles, to suit political interests. Roads and highways plan were either; deferred amended
or realigned for political reasons. As a consequence, different laws with conflicting purposes and procedures
impede or obstruct implementations causing delay or no action at all.
 
Politicians now control DPWH projects as their source of, political funds.
Highway district engineer's qualification is simply subservience to the politician. "Do what I say or get
out of my district".

Listing of projects given to the district engineer has the corresponding name of favored contractors-
the willing victims giving SOP in cash advances.

Rational Planning is no longer the objective process, based on training, and expertise concerning the
actual needs of the: people, but is rather, a political decision.
 
As a CONSEQUENCE
- public confidence tremendously eroded
- not only in the government's ability to abate these problems, but also in the
proficiency of the technical men to offer solutions.

Indeed, our professionals more particularly the technical men, seems to have lost
confidence in thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.
 
1.5 Highway Programming
 I.5 Highway Programming

There
` are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway
programming, they are:

1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial - The question of who pays and who spends, how
much, and where?
3. Political and Administration - This involves decision making.
 
 I.5 Highway Programming
Highway Programming Approaches
l. Financial resources are either short or long ranged implementation by the
agencies
` functions like construction, operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and
future expected level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other
transportation mode.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including
climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies,
acquiring right of way and making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters.
 
I.5 Highway Programming

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

`

A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost.
b. Right of way appropriations.
c. Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs.
e. Operating costs.
 I.5 Highway Programming

2. Cost benefits to highway users

` a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion cost) net
income or decrease in costs of vehicle operation per year
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease
in travel time multiplied by the peso value of commercial
time.
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident) Net change in
expected number of accidents times the average cost per accident
per year.
I.5 Highway Programming

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value

`
1. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering
and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, inconvenience
and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of pleasing
views and scenery from road.
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value
1. Cost benefits to highway users - Traveling savings time. (non-
commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip.
THE PLANNER
 1.6 THE PLANNER

• Before any project comes to reality, it has to

undergo rigorous and careful studies with
participation of several line agencies
involved.

• The planner's role must be of a clarifier,

expediters, conciliators and impartial
negotiators
 1.6 THE PLANNER
The Functions of the Planners are:

1 To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and

the initial work program. Know the basic needs,
plan and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting
the representatives of other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate
community interaction.
4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and
have the results documented. If nothing goes wrong, this
step is considered final.
1.7 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
 1.7 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
It is a common practice to call public hearing after all major decisions were made and
approved.

Public hearing should involve the public

from the start of planning to give them a chance to participate in
the discussions and involved there in:
l. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials,
non-government organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group
meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activities.