Rivers

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The water cycle

Water moves through evaporation from the sea to the atmosphere, falls on land as rain and then flows back to
the sea.

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How water flows into rivers

Overland flow on surface. Infiltration, then throughflow in the soil. Groundwater flow through permeable rocks.

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Drainage basins
•A watershed separates one
drainage basin from the next.
•Most rivers begin at a
spring.
•Tributaries each join the
main river at a confluence.
•The river flows into the sea
at its mouth.
•Drainage patterns can be
radial, trellised or dendritic.
Which is shown here?

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River erosion
•Rivers erode through:
– solution of minerals which
can be dissolved
– hydraulic action: the
force of the river water itself
– abrasion: stones and sand
grains thrown against the
bed and banks
– attrition: stones are
thrown against each other
and worn to a rounded
shape.
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Rivers transport eroded material through …

… solution and suspension in the water, saltation as sand grains bounce along, and traction of rocks along
the riverbed.

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How material is deposited

Large boulders first, then gravel, then silt and clay on the flood plain. Dissolved minerals are usually carried right
to the sea.

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The upper, middle and lower course of a river

Erosion mainly in the upper course, deposition mainly in the lower course.

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Landforms in the upper, middle and lower course

V-shaped valley, waterfall and rapids. Broad valley with flood plain and meanders. Flat landscape with meanders,
levees and delta.

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How the valley changes

At first the river erodes mainly downwards. Then it erodes the valley sides to create a flood plain. Deposition in
the lower course.

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Is this river in its upper, middle or lower course?
•Which of these indicators
can be seen:
– V-shaped valley?
– meanders?
– flood plain?
– rapids?
– steep valley sides?
•What type of material is
deposited along the river?

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Waterfalls
•Waterfalls may be formed:
– at the edge of a plateau
– on a band of resistant rock
– in a steep-sided glacial
valley eroded by ice.
•There is a deep plunge pool
at the base of a waterfall.
•As the waterfall is eroded,
its position moves upstream.
A steep-sided gorge is
created on the downstream
side.
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Meanders
•Meanders usually formed in
the middle and lower course.
•The zone of fastest flow
swings from side to side,
creating meanders.
•Erosion on the outer bank
produces a river cliff or
bluff.
•Deposition on the meander
core forms a point bar and
slip-off slope.

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Oxbow lakes
•Erosion narrows the neck of
a meander.
•The river breaks through,
forming an island and cut-off.
•Sediment is deposited,
creating an oxbow lake.
•The lake is filled with
alluvium (river deposits),
forming an abandoned
meander.

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Levees
•Sediment is deposited when
the river floods.
•Most sediment is deposited
close to the river channel.
•Levees are formed along the
river banks.
•There is also deposition on
the river bed. The surface of
the river may be above the
level of the flood plain.

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Braided rivers
•In a braided river channel,
deposits of sand, gravel and
rocks create temporary sand
bars and vegetated islands.
•Braided channels form where:
– There is a plentiful supply of
sand and gravel from
upstream.
– Discharge varies widely
between flood and low water.
– The river gradient is steep.

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Deltas
•A delta is an area of flat land
formed at the mouth of a river
where:
– A large volume of sediment
is deposited.
– The sea is relatively calm
and not too deep.
– There is a small tidal range.
•The river divides into
distributaries as it crosses the
delta. Lagoons may form
between the distributaries.
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The Nile delta
•The green, fertile delta
contrasts with the
surrounding desert.
•Historically, the Nile has
carried large volumes of
sediment.
•The Mediterranean Sea is
usually calm and has a small
tidal range.

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