The theory of Crime

causation
Early criminological theories

 Demonological theory- explained criminality

dominated thinking from early history well into the
17th century. This theory was predominant at a time
when explanation of reality were done through
theological approaches. The criminal was viewed
as a sinner who was possessed by demons or
damned by other wordly forces.
 Classical theory- emphasizes freewill and rationality on
the part of criminal actor. The classical school of
criminology grew out of frustration against barbabaric
system of law and justice.
 This school of thought is based on the assumption that
individuals choose to commit crime after weighing the
consequences of their action.
 Viewed individuals as acting based on freewill and being
motivated by hedonism. The latter refers to pleasure
principle, which consumes that the main purposes of life is
to maximize pleasure while minimizing pain.
 Cesare beccaria-  he was one the founders of classical school of
criminology. He published book entitled “On crimes on punishment”
which presented a coherent and comprehensive design for an
enlightened criminal justice system that was to serve the people
rather than monarch.
 His book made reforms in penal legislation and was influential in
the reforms of penal codes in france, russia, and it influence the first
ten amendments to the constitution.
 Responsible for the abolition of torture as legitimate means of
extracting confession.
Proposed principle for the proper
operation of CJS
 Law should be used to maintain social contract.
 Only legislator should create law.
 Judges should imposed punishment only in accordance with the
law.
 Punishment should be based on the pleasure and pain principle.
 Punishment should be determined by the crime.
 Capital punishment should be abolished.
 Its better to prevent crimes than to punish criminals.
 Jeremy bentham- he founded the hedonistic concept of utilitarianism, which
assumes that all our action are calculated in accordance with their likelihood of
bringing pleasure and pain. He devised the pseudo-mathematical formula called
felicific calculus which view individuals as human calculator who put all the
factors into equation before deciding whether a particular crime is worth
committing or not.
 Neo-classical- this theory modified the doctrine of free will by stating that
freewill of men may be affected by other factors and crime are committed due to
some compelling reason. These causes are pathology, incompetence, insanity or
any condition that will make it impossible for the individual to exercise freewill
entirely.
Positivism

 Positivist suggest that human behavior is a product of

social, biological, sociological or economic factor.
Proponents of positivism and evolutionism moved the
field  of criminology from philosophical to a scientific
perspective.
 August comte- introduced positivism who is also credited to having coined the
term sociology.
 Comte proposed the used of emperical and scientific investigation for
improvement of society.
 He founded sociology and applied scientific methods in the study of society,
which to him passes through stages divided on the basis of how people try to
understand it, leading them to adopt a rational scientific understanding of the
world. Comte called this the positive stage and those who followed his writings
were called:
a. positivism
b. august comte
c. positivist
d. sociologist
 Cesare Lombroso- he claimed that criminals are distinguishable from non-
criminal due to the presence of atavistic stigmata and crimes committed by those
who are born with certain recognizable heredity traits. 
 Acc. To him criminal are usually in possession of huge jaws and strong canine
teeth, the arm span of criminals is often greater than their height just like that of
apes who use their forearms to push along the ground.
 Other physical stigmata include deviation in head size and shape, asymmetry of
the face, excessive dimension of the jaw and cheekbones, eye defects and
peculiarities, ears of unusual size, nose twisted, upturned or flattened in thieves,
or aquiline or beaklike in murderers, fleshy lips, swollen and protruding, and
pouches in the cheek like those of animals toes.
 Classes of criminal acc to Lombroso
 Born criminal- individual with at least 5
atavistic stigmata
 Insane criminal – those who became criminal because of
some brain defects which affect their ability to understands
and differentiate what is right from what is wrong.
 Criminaloid- those with makeup of an ambiguous group
that include habitual criminal, criminal by passion and
other diverse type.
 Pseudo-criminal- due to self defense 
 Which of the following is not a description of criminal man by lombroso
 a. symetry of the face
 b. abnormal dentition
 c. defective thorax
 d. Excessive length of arms 
Rafael Garofalo- he treated the roots of the
criminal behavior not to physical features but
to their psychology equivalent which he
referred to as a moral anomalies.
Enrico Ferri – he was a member of italian parliament
who believed that criminal could not be held morally
responsible because they did not choose to commit crime
but was driven to commit them by condition of their live.
 He focused his study on the influences of sociological
factors such as economic crime.
 Advocate theory of imputability and denial of freewill
 Biological factors- an area of positivism which
associates criminal traits or individual’s evil
disposition to inherited genetic like physical
disfigurement or impairment and other biological
causes.
 PHYSIOGNOMY 
  the study of the facial features and their relation to human behavior 

 PROPONENTS:
 Giambatista dela Porta  -founder of human physiognomy
 Acc to him, criminal behavior may be predicted based on facial feature of a
person
 Johann Kaspar Lavater –he supported the belief of dela porta
 - he believed that a person's character is revealed through his facial characteristics.
 PHRENOLOGY 
    the study that deals with the relationship between the skull and human behavior
 Study of the external formation of the skull in relation to the person's personality
and tendencies toward criminal behavior.
 Franzjoseph gall- he developed cranioscopy which later
renamed as phrenology.
 Thestudy that deals with the relationship between the
skull and human behavior.

 Johanns kaspar spurzheim- he was assistant of gall in

the study of phrenology. They studied the shape of the
skull and bumps on the heads to determine whether these
physical attributes were linked to criminal behavior.
 Hewas the man most responsible  for popularizing and
spreading phrenology to a wide audience.
 Samuel G. morton – he developed the idea
of polygenism.
 Polygenism- human races are different lineages
 Monogenesim- single origin of humanity
 Earnest Hooton- Harvard anthropologist who in CRIME
AND MAN claimed that, on the basis of a very detailed
and extensive study of physical differences between
criminal and non-criminal. He had discovered the causes
of criminality- PHYSICAL INFERIORITY. His 12 year
study of 14,000 prisoner and 3,200 college student,
firemen and others, led to him to this conclusion.
 Charles darwin- he published the book Origin of
species which put forth this concept that human
beings, as part of nature, evolved, from other
species over a long period of time and the
evolution occurs through variation, adaptation and
natural selection.
 PHYSIOLOGY OR SOMATYPE 
    refers to the study of the body build of a person in relation to his temperament
and personality and the type of offense he is most prone to commit 
   also called somatology and body-type theories
 ERNST KRETSCHMER 
 Asthenic-  lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders,
their crimes are petty thievery and fraud.
 Athletic– medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse
bone: they are usually connected with the crimes of
violence
 pyknic - medium height, rounded figures, massive
neck , broad face: they tend to commit
fraud deception and violence
 2) WILLIAM SHELDON 
  Ectomorph- have small skeleton and weak muscles. The
body shape is fragile and thin
  Mesomorph- have well developed muscles and an
athletic appearance. Body shape is hard and round
  Endomorph-   have heavily builds and slow moving .
Body shape is soft and round
 HEREDITY 
   the transmission of traits from parents to off springs 
   findings of the early studies done on adoption and twin studies support the idea
that criminality can be inherited
 RICHARD DUGDALE –he studied the lives of the
members of the jukes family.
 he discovered that from among that descendants of ada
jukes, there were 290 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40
other criminals, 40 person with venereal diseases(STD) and
50 prostitutes.
 HENRY GODDARD 

- studied the Kallikak Family and found that

among the descendants from kalikak relationship
with a feeble minded lady, there were 143 feeble
minded and only 46 normal, 36 were illegitimate, 3
epileptics, 3 criminal, 8 kept brothel and 82 died of
infancy.
  CHARLES GORING 
 - studied the physical traits of convicted offenders and proposed that individuals
who possess criminal characteristics should be prohibited from having
children.
 He repudiated theory of lombroso atavistic stigmata
 3000 established that non criminal people tended have more atavistic trait 
 Francis galton- he developed EUGENICS or the science of improving a human
population by controlled breeding to increases the occurrence of desirable
heritable characteristics.

 Schulsinger- he found criminality in adoptive boys to be higher when biological

fathers had criminal records.(ADOPTION STUDIES)

 Hutchings and mednick- they studied 1, 145 male adoptees with criminal
records and found the criminality of the biological father was a major predictor of
the child's behavior.
 Modern perspective on biological determinism-
the newest biological theories, which some
advocates call biosocial theories, focus on broad
range of biological factors including genetic and
environmental.
Nature theory- it argues that intelligence is
largely determined genetically, that ancestry
determines I,Q and that low intelligence as
demonstrated by low I,Q is linked to
criminal behavior.
 Nurture theory- it refers to all the environmental
variables that impact who were are including our
childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social
relationship and our surrounding culture.

 Itassumes that correlation between environmental factors

and psychological outcomes are caused environmentally. 
 Brain disorder- modern attempt to probe(investigate)
about brain disorder was conducted by Portugueses
physician Antonio Moniz in 1935. He performed
prefrontal lobotomy(destruction of the frontal lobes of the
brain) as a last resort for non-responsive mental patients.
Acc to him, out of twenty mental patients, fifteen showed
some degree of improvement as a result of the operation.
Twin studies- the studies and adoptees are
ingenious ways of attempting to address the
nature vs nurture debate that is, whether
criminality is inherited or learned. Such
studies are after the fact in nature and begin
with criminals who have a twin and then
attempts to find the other twin in order to
discover whether he or she is also a criminal.
 Cyrill burt- he claimed that intelligence was
primarily inherited. He also conducted twin studies
that claimed to prove the inherited nature of
intelligence. However, subsequent examination
revealed that he fabricated some of the data,
though some of his works remained unaffected by
this revelation.
Bio-chemical- crime, especially violent, is a
function of diet, vitamin intake , hormonal
imbalance, or food allergies.
Menstruation and crime- found that nearly
half of the crimes of her sample female inmates
had occurred during menstruation or pre-
menstruation.
 Schauss- study comparing nutritional differences of
delinquents and non- delinquents, the surprising major
difference found was that delinquents drank more milk.

 Low blood sugar also has been claimed to be linked to

impaired brain function and violent crime. Hypoglycemia
low blood sugar level 
PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINISM 
  refers to the theories that attribute criminal
behavior of individuals to psychological
factors 
 PSCHOANALYTIC THEORY 
    formulated by SIGMUND FREUD 
    according to this theory, personality has three (3) components: the id, ego and
superego 
    the imbalance among the three (3) components causes abnormal behavior 
 Freud opined that the doctrines of resistance and
repression, the unconscious, the etiological
significance of a person sex life and the importance
of childhood experiences are the main building
blocks of the theoretical edifice of psychoanalysis
 Freud's model of the personality structure
 Psychosexual stages of human development
 Oral stage
 Anal stage
 Phallic
 Latency
 Genitals 
Henry Maudsley- he believed that
crime is an outlet in which their unsound
tendencies are discharged and that
offenders would go mad if they were
not criminal.
August Aichorn- he published the book
entitled, wayward youth.
Aichorn argued that the cause of the
crime and delinquency is the faulty
development of the child during the first few
years of his life.
David Abrahamsen- published book entitled
crime and the human mind
He explained that the cause of criminal
behavior is the result of criminalistic
tendencies added by crime inducing
situation and divided by the person's
mental and emotional resistance to
temptation.
Erik erikson- described the so called
identity crisis a psychological state in which
youth face inner turmoil and uncertainty
about life roles
 Albert Adler- founder of individual psychology and coined the term inferiority
complex people have feeling if inferior and compensate for them with a drive for
superiority.

 Adlerian theory is a holistic approach to psychology that emphasizes the

importance of overcoming feelings of inferiority and gaining a sense of
belonging in order to achieve success and happiness
 Walter Bromberg- according to him, a person is
emotionally mature when he has learned to control his
emotion effectively and who lives at peace with himself
and in harmony with the standards of conduct which are
acceptable to the society. An emotionally immature person
rebels against rules and regulation and tends to engage in
unusual activities and experiences a feeling of guilt due to
inferiority complex.
Hans eysenck- developed the trait theory of
personality that identified three basic
dimension of personality as neuroticism,
extraversion and psychoticism
 Isaac ray- questioned whether people who were morally
insane could be held legally responsible for their acts
 B.F skinner – views behavior as primarily a response to
consistent condition or learning reinforced through
expected rewards and punishment.
 Albert bandura- social learning theory looks at the
thought processes of the person and external sanction. By
observing others, individual learn how to engage in
aggression. This might include exposure to aggressive
models, aversive treatment by other, or positively
anticipating participation in such action. The
reinforcement or punishment of such action is important.
 SOCIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM 
 - refers to things, places, events, conditions in the environment and people that
can influence the behavior of an individual 
 EMILE DURKHEIM 
 - introduced the concept of ANOMIE, the absence of social norms, disorder due
to lack of common values shared by individuals, lack of respect for authority and
lack of appreciation for what is acceptable and not in society
 Norm- generally accepted by the society 
 Deviate abnormal 
 A- away from anomie 
 Ban 
 Breakdown of social order
 Absence of social norms
 Without norms
 Crime is normal in society 
 GABRIEL TARDE 
 - introduced the THEORY OF IMITATION
 Individuals imitate behavior of other individual based on the degree of their
association with other indivdual and it is inferior or weak who tend to imitate the
superior and strong
 CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL OF
CRIMINOLOGY 
    studied
the influence of social statistical data
such as population, age, gender, occupation and
economic status to criminality 
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES 
 hold that delinquency is a function of a person’s place in the economic
structure 
 sub-theories are the following: 
 Social Disorganization Theory
 Strain Theory 
 Cultural Deviance Theory 
 SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
   according to this theory, crimes in the urban areas are
more prevalent because residents have impersonal
relationships with each other.
  there is increase in the   number of broken families and
single parenthood are also very common in disorganized
communities 
    anotherfeature is poverty as evidenced by poor living
conditions, such as unsightly and unsanitary streets and
high unemployment rate 
 STRAIN THEORY 
    strain refers to the     individual’s frustrations, anger and resentment
 - strain is caused by their inability to have, achieve and possess their desires in
life , whether material or non-material things this inability is brought about by
poverty  as a result, they are pushed into doing illegal activities to survive 
 CULTURAL DEVIANCE THEORY 
    give emphasis on the concept of culture and sub- culture 
 -  because people in the lower class feel isolated due to extreme deprivation and
poverty, they tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules and values  
   combines the elements of social disorganization theory and strain theory 
 CULTURE 
 - refers to the system of values and meanings and social norms shared by a group
of individuals; way of life of the majority of people 
 SUB-CULTURE 

- a sub-group within an    existing culture that maintains a unique set of
values and beliefs that are in conflict with conventional social norms 
 Culture with in a culture 
 Walter miller- lower class culture as a general milieu(environment) of gang
delinquent. Territory of juvenile? turf
 Discovered that clinging to lower class value system promotes illegal violent
behavior.

 Albert cohen- because of social condition make them incapable of achieving

success legitimately lower class youth experience a form of a culture conflict.
 SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES 
 view delinquency as a result of poor or faulty socialization or upbringing 

 Differential Association Theory 

 Differential Reinforcement Theory 
 Neutralization Theory
 DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY 
    formulated by Edwin Sutherland  

    This theory states that criminality can be learned through socialization 

    Criminal behavior is learned through social interaction in the process of
communication.
 DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY 
    individual’s behavior depends on how people around him react towards his
behavior
    a behavior is reinforced when the individual gains something from it 
    a behavior will be extinguished if the individual is punished for his behavior 
 Reward and punishment 
 Ronald akers and rober burgess
 NEUTRALIZATION THEORY 
    introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes 
 Drifting theory movement from one extreme behavior to another
    people know when they are doing something wrong, however, they rationalize
and justify their actions 
    this rationalizing is what is called “neutralization” 
 Rationalize alibi justify 
 Denial of responsibility- shifting the blame
 Denial of injury- no one has harm
 Denial of victim- he got what he deserve 
 Condemnation of condemner-  share guilt
 Appeal to higher authorities
 SOCIAL REACTION THEORY 
 view delinquent acts and criminality as products of stigma and labeling 
 states that people become criminals when significant members of society label
them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity 
 Labelling theory, branding stigma 
 Frank tannenbaum edwin lamert
 SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES 
 -   maintain that everybody has the potential to become a criminal but most people
are controlled by their bonds to society 
 - the social control being referred to are the agencies of social control, such as
family, school, religion or church, government and other institutions
 CONTAINMENT THEORY 
   proposed by Walter Reckless 
   containment means the forces within and outside the individual that has the
power to influence his actions 
   inner containments refer to  positive self-concept, tolerance for frustration
and ability to set realistic goals
   outer containments include the family and other institutions 
    both inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile offending 
 SOCIAL BOND THEORY 
    formulated by Travis Hirschi 
    views crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds to social
institutions 
    according to this theory, there are four (4) elements of social bonds: 
ATTACHMENT, COMMITMENT, INVOLVEMENT and BELIEF 
 ATTACHMENT 
 refers to the degree to which individuals care about the opinions of others 

 COMMITMENT 
 refers to an individual’s investment of energy and emotion in conventional
pursuits 
 INVOLVEMENT 
    refers to the amount of time an individual spends on a conventional
pursuit 

 BELIEF 
 - refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society
 Differential identification theory-
 Person pursue criminal behavior to the extent that he identifies himself with real
or imaginary person from whose perspective his criminal behavior.
Economic determinism-  insisted that society's
economic substructure shapes all other institutions
and relationship.
 Karl marx- emphasized the economic basis of societal conflict which gave birth
to the economic substructure determines the nature of all other institution and
social relationship in society.
 In his view the emergence of capitalism produces economic inequality in which
the workers is exploited by the capitalist class.
 This exploitation creates poverty and also the root of other social problems
 Conflict theory- is interested in understanding
how the social and criminal justice system respond
differentially to person suspected of violating the
law.
 Instrumentalist theory- he claimed the higher classes are
using the existence of the state to exploit the lower classes
by making rules for their own protection, benefit and
interest.
 Earl richard quinney
 Critical criminology- is a generic term encompassing many
different theoretical position united by the common view that
society is best characterized by conflict and power relations rather
that by value consensus
Feminist criminology- focuses on trying to understand female offending from
feminist perspective, which contends that women are faced with special disabilities
living in an oppressive sexist society.
-attemps to define criminology and criminal justice based upon the understanding,
experiences and view of the world by the women.
 Peacemaking criminology- it is based on religious principle more than empirical
science. It wants to make peace on crime, counsel us what we should appreciate
the criminal's point of view and wants us to be less punitive
 Left realism- focuses upon the reason why people of the working class prey
upon one another that is victimized other people on their own race and kind.
 Developmental theory-follow individuals across the life course to determine the
differential effect of risk factors for offending at different junctures.
 Moffits dual pathway theory- there are two main pathway to offending: life
course persistent and adolescent limited. 
 LCP offenders have neurological and temperamental difficulties which are
exacerbated by inept parenting. LCP offenders do across time and situation, begin
prior puberty, and continue well into adulthood.

 Adolescent limited offenders are normal individual temporarily derailed during

adolescene.
 Sampson and laub's age graded theory- emphasizes the power of informal social
control across the life course. Assumes classical notion of why people commit
crimes, therefore no need to dwell to much on risk factors. These turning point are
made easier if one has accumulated significant social capital.
 Life course theory- view criminality as a dynamic process, influence by a
multitude of individual characteristics, traits and social experiences. As people
travel through the life course, they are constantly bombarded by changing
perception and experiences and as a result of which their behavior will change
directions sometime for the better and sometime for the worse.
 Latent trait theory- holds the human development is controlled by master trait
consisting of personality, intelligence and genetic make-up present at birth. Other
criminologist believe that this master trait remains stable and unchanging
throughout a person's lifetime whereas other suggest that it can be altered,
influence , or change by subsequent experience. In either event, as people travel
throught their life course this trait is always there directing their behavior.
 1. he is an American sociologist and considered as he most influential
criminologist in the twentieth century
 a. david w maurer
 b. edwin sutherland
 c. enrico ferri
 d. gabriel tarde

Ans      B
 2. the idea that low female crime and delinquency rates are a reflection of the
leniency which police treat female offenders.
 a. doing gender
 b. masculinity hypothesis
 c. chivalry hypothesis 
 d. pre-menstrual syndrome

Ans  C
 3. the following are characteristics of classical theory . except
 a. the basis of criminal liability is human free will 
 b. man is essentially a moral creature with an absolute freewill to choose between
good and evil, thereby placing more stress upon the effect or result of the
felonious act than the man.
 c. there is scant regard to the human element
 d. man is subdued occasionally by strange and morbid phenomenon which
constrain him t do wrong contrary to his volition

Ans      D
 4. why Cesare Lombroso became the father of criminology?
 a. he is the founder of Italian school
 b. he was the first criminologist who used scientific principles in order to
determine the causes of crime
 c. he wrote criminal man
 d. he explained that criminal are born 

Ans      B
 5. bruno grows up in homes where his parents abuse alcohol and he sees it that
drinking is socially and physically beneficial. He went out to see his friend
buknoy to drink alcohol. At the house of buknoy, he wonders how his friend looks
so happy, even they had the same disrupted family. His friend buknoy told him,
getting high on marijuana is good to forget problems of life, so buknoy teaches
him the proper way to smoke a joint. Eventually bruno became a notorious drug
dealer
 a. differential reinforcement theory
 b. differential association theory
 c. differential opportunity
 d. differential identification theory 

Ans       B
 6.  in the book "On crime and punishment" what was said to be the most effective
means of controlling crime
 a. death penalty
 b. monetary fine
 c. life imprisonment
 d. certainty of punishment 

Ans     D
 7. which of the following is not a requirement for a punishment to be an effective
deterrent ?
 a. lengthy
 b. severe
 c. celerity 
 d. certainty 

Ans      A
 8. among the different body types WIlliam Sheldon presented in his study, he
considered this one to be the most likely to become criminal
 a. endomorph
 b. ectomorph
 c. mesomorph
 d. morpling 

Ans      C
 9. which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the study of causes or reason for a
crime
 a. penology
 b. criminal psychology
 c. sociology of law
 d. etiology of crimes

Ans      D
 10. CJ , 18 years old he wanted to succed no matter what, he had gotten decent
grades, but when he tied to get a job after graduation, he couldn't get hired. All the
adult he knew worked hard for something they never got. They had low paying
menial jobs and could barely afford a place to live and food for their families,
their children were left believing that they would have similar problems getting
ahead in any meaningful way. So CJ had to look at other ways to succeed.
 a. differential reinforcement theory
 b. differential association theory
 c. differential opportunity
 d. differential identification theory 

Ans     C
 11. This theory puts the focus on the process of naming behaviors and the people
that perform the.
 a. functionalist 
 b. rational choice theory
 c. anomie
 d. social reaction theory 

Ans     D
 12.  what theory considers crime as a natural phenomenon
 a. somatotyping
 b. differential association theory
 c. anomie theory
 d. pyscho-analytical theory 

Ans     C 
 13. What is the primary theoretical assumption of neo classical criminologist
make about human decision making
 a. human decision making is inherently irrational
 b. human decision making is always rational when it comes to crime
 c. human decision making can be rational when it comes ot crime but can be
clouded by emotion
 d. human decision making is rational or irrational depending on the individual

Ans      D
 14. Which of these statement best describes a marxist perspective on crime
 a. crime is a result of low moral fiber brought on by greed and corruption
 b. crime is the result of legal structure that fail to take womens experience into
account
 c. crime is a direct result of those at the top of the power structure killing off other
power players trying to attain the top position
 d. crime is a result of conflict between the ruling class and the exploited working
class.

ANS  D
15. Science of improving human off spring
a. genetics
b. eugenics
c. criminology
d. heredity

Ans   B
 16.  this school of criminology was established based on philosophy of
utilitarianism. It was particularlary known as the classical school. What is that
treatise on the egal reform that became the pillar of the school;
 a. classical school
 b. positivist school
 c. essay on crime and punishment
 d. let the punishment fit the crime

Ans       C
 17. Crime in one instance may be cause by one or more factor, while in other
instances it is caused by another set of factors
 a. single
 b. double
 c. eclectic
 d. multiple 
Ans       B
 18. Any crime committed by an individual from a lower social class as opposed to
white collar crime which is associated with crime committed by individual of a
higher social class:
 a. blue collar crime
 b. white collar crime
 c. blue corner
 d. public order crime 

Ans       A
 19.  Mr. Crisanto had witness a rape scene and volunteered to estify in court on
what he has perceived on that day. In the topographical model according to freud,
on what level of awareness Mr. crisanto will get his testimony
 a. conscious
 b. pre- conscious
 c. id
 d. unconscious 

Ans      B
 20. This theory believe that becoming a criminal is a discovering occurrence in
which potential felons master techniques that enables them to compensate
conventional values and drift and forth between illegitimate and conventional
behavior
 a. containment
 b. economic
 c. neutralization
 d. differential reinforcement theory

Ans    C
The end
thank you