MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING MATERIALS I
EGM 241
@2022

Lecturer: Eng Goodson Masheka

Cell: 0977-705755
Email: mashekagoodson@gmail.com

Lecture 2 - Bond theory

 Introduction
2

 Some of the important properties of solid materials

depend on geometrical atomic arrangements, and
also the interactions that exist among constituent
atoms or molecules.
Atomic Structure- Fundamental Concepts
3

 Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of

protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving
electrons
 Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the
charge magnitude being 1.60 * 10-19 C which is negative
in sign for electrons and positive for protons; neutrons
are electrically neutral
 Masses for these subatomic particles are infinitesimally
small; protons and neutrons have approximately the
same mass, 1.67 *10-27 kg, which is significantly larger
than that of an electron 9.11* 10-31 kg.
Atomic Structure- Fundamental
Concepts cont’
4

 Each chemical element is characterized by the

number of protons in the nucleus, or the atomic
number (Z)
 For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the
atomic number also equals the number of electrons.
 This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1
for hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest of the
naturally occurring elements.
Atomic Structure- Fundamental
Concepts cont’
5

 The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the

sum of the masses of protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
 Although the number of protons is the same for all atoms of a
given element, the number of neutrons (N) may be variable.
 Atoms of some elements have two or more different atomic
masses, which are called isotopes.
 The atomic weight of an element corresponds to the weighted
average of the atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring
isotopes.
 The atomic mass unit (amu) may be used for computations of
atomic weight
Atomic Structure- Fundamental
Concepts cont’
6

 The atomic weight of an element or the molecular

weight of a compound may be specified on the
basis of amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole
of material.
 In one mole of a substance there are 6.023 *1023
(Avogadro’s number) atoms or molecules.
 These two atomic weight schemes are related
through the following equation:
 Atomic Structure- Fundamental
7
Concepts cont’
 Principles and laws that govern systems of atomic
and subatomic entities that came to be known as
quantum mechanics
 An understanding of the behavior of electrons in
atoms and crystalline solids necessarily involves
the discussion of quantum-mechanical concepts
 One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was
the simplified Bohr atomic model
 Bohr atomic model
8

 Electrons are assumed to revolve around the atomic

nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in
terms of its orbital
The Bohr model represents
an early attempt to describe
electrons in atoms, in terms
of both position (electron
orbitals) and energy
(quantized energy levels)
 Bohr atomic model cont’
9

 Another important quantum-mechanical principle

stipulates that the energies of electrons are quantized;
that is, electrons are permitted to have only specific
values of energy.
 An electron may change energy, but in doing so it must
make a quantum jump either to an allowed higher energy
(with absorption of energy) or to a lower energy (with
emission of energy).
 Often, it is convenient to think of these allowed electron
energies as being associated with energy levels or states.
 Bohr atomic model cont’
10

 Bohr model has some significant limitations

because of its inability to explain several
phenomena involving electrons.
 A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical
model, in which the electron is considered to
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like
characteristics.
Atomic Models – Bohr model

 Electrons fill lower energy states first before filling the higher
energy states
 Wave-mechanical model
12

 With this model, an electron is no longer treated as

a particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather,
position is considered to be the probability of an
electron’s being at various locations around the
nucleus.
 In other words, position is described by a
probability distribution or electron cloud.
Atomic Models – Wave Mechanical
Model
 Electron behaves like a wave and a particle
 Comparison between Bohr and
14
wave mechanical atom models
Comparison of the (a)
Bohr and (b)
wavemechanical atom
models in terms of electron
distribution
Particle Vs. Wave?
Quantum Numbers
 There are four quantum
numbers that describe
the properties of an
electron and the
Apple “orbital” that it occupies
within an atom.
 What are orbitals?
 The main division of energy for an electron within an
atom is called the energy level or shell.
 The energy level (shell) is subdivided into distinct areas
called sublevels (subshells).
 The sublevels are divided into orbitals. The orbitals are
where the electrons are found.
 Each orbital can hold no more than a pair of electrons.
 Four Quantum Numbers describe
the following:
1. distance from the nucleus
2. shape of the orbital
3. 3-dimensional positioning of the orbital
4. direction of electron’s spin within the orbital
The First Quantum Number
The Principal Quantum Number
 Abbreviated as “n”
 n = 1,2,3...
 Represents the
distance of an electron
from the nucleus & the
main energy level of
the electron.
What else does the Principal
Quantum Number (n) tell us?
 n = number of
sublevels in the energy
level.
What else does the Principal
Quantum Number (n) tell us?
 n2 = number of orbitals
in the energy level.
What else does the Principal
Quantum Number (n) tell us?
 2n2 = maximum
number of electrons
possible in the energy
level.
What else does the Principal
Quantum Number (n) tell us?
n Energy # of # of Max # of
level sublevels orbitals electrons
1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 4 8
3 3 3 9 18
4 4 4 16 32
The Second Quantum Number (Types
of Sublevels)
 The second quantum number identifies the type of
sublevel that the electron occupies.

 There are four types of sublevels in atoms.

 The sublevels are identified by the letters: s, p,

d, f
“s” sublevel and “p” sublevel

a s orbitals have a p orbitals have a

spherical shape dumbbell shape
Types of sublevels
 There are four types of sublevels in atoms.
 The sublevels are designated s, p, d, f.

n Energy # of Sublevel
level sublevels types
1 1 1 1s
2 2 2 2s, 2p
3 3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
The Third Quantum Number
 The third quantum number identifies the orbital
that the electron is in.
 An orbital is an area within a sublevel that can
hold up to two electrons.
An “s” sublevel has one orbital
A “p” sublevel has three orbitals
A “d” sublevel has five orbitals
An “f” sublevel has seven orbitals
The 4th Energy Level
 n=?
The 4th Energy Level
 n=4
The 4th Energy Level
 How many sublevels are present and
what type are they?
 Four sublevels: s, p, d, f
The 4th Energy Level
 How many orbitals are present?
 n2 = (4)2 = 16
 The 4 Energy Level
th

•What is the maximum number of electrons?

•2n2 = 2(4)2 = 32
The Fourth Quantum Number “s”

 Also called the spin quantum number.

 Can be either +1/2 or -1/2.
 Specifies the direction of spin of the electron on its
axis.
 Spins are designated up or down.
What sublevel is the first to
be filled with electrons?

O
Which sublevel listed

O
contains orbitals of the
highest energy?
 Assignment
40

 Read through the Periodic Table

41

End of the presentation

Thank you for listening…..