Sociology, Culture & Identity

Sociology 141
Unit 1
Time:8:30-9:30
Monday-Friday
Room: SASPS 1
Lecturer: Antonia Cadore-Calliste
 Learning Outcomes
 To outline the development of sociology as a discipline from the classical period to
the contemporary period;

 To Examine the fundamental concepts in sociology;

 To evaluate the different theoretical perspectives in sociology; and

 To apply the different sociological perspectives to the Caribbean.

Sociology as a discipline: The origins of
Sociology

o August Comte’ ( 1798-1857)- Father of Sociology

o Where does the word Sociology comes from ?

o Developed from the term social physics (In science , physics).

o social physics is the study of social systems and social phenomena from the perspective of
o OR social physics is “the application of the concepts of physics in the social sciences”)

o Sociology is Greek, (soci) meaning society & (logos) meaning Knowledge

Definitions

 Sociology is the study of human behaviour in society.’ This definition

though broad in scope demonstrates that sociology is one of the social
sciences (Anderson and Taylor, 2004).
 Sociology is the study of human behaviour as shaped by collective life.’
Collective life refers to groups or institutionalized practices such as family
and school relationships and experiences (Hess, Markson and Stein 1993).
 ‘Sociology: the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a
dazzling and compelling enterprise having as its subject matter our own
behaviour as social beings….’ ( Giddens, 1986)
 The scientific study of human society and interactions.’ This definition of
sociology emphasizes the use of systematic procedures in the study of
human behaviour. In this way, sociological knowledge is separated from
common-sense knowledge (Thio, 1994).
 The development of Sociology as
a discipline

Factors influencing the development of Sociology in Europe (world)

 French Revolution
 American Revolution
 Industrial Revolution
 Age of Enlightenment (new ideology politics, social economic change)
 Rise in Secularization (decline in religion)
 Rise of Rationalization (age of science)
 Rise in Crime and Social unrest in Europe
 Rise in Capitalism and Socialism
 Renaissance period

How these factors influence the historical development of the world ?

 Early writers of sociology : Auguste
Comte (1798–1857)

 French mathematician and philosopher who advocated the application of positivism to the study
of the social sciences. Positivism is a system of philosophy based on experience and empirical
knowledge of natural phenomena. It therefore involves applying the principles and methods of the
natural sciences to the study of society.

 Comte was of the opinion that such an approach would produce a ‘positive science of society’. He
advocated that since certain laws governed human behaviour, it could therefore be measured
objectively.

 Comte was of the opinion that human behaviour is controlled by the social environment in much
the same way that the behaviour of organisms is controlled in the natural environment. As such,
human behaviour can be predicted and measured in much the same way as organisms behave in
the natural world.

 Comte’s work, though limited, provided the foundation for the development of sociology as it is
known today. Many of Comte’s doctrines were later adapted and developed by other social
thinkers such as Durkheim (Mustapha,2013 )
 Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)

 Karl Marx society very different than functionalist who saw society as a harmonious and
well-integrated system, he saw it as an arena of struggle, conflict and competing interests.

 According to Marx, capitalism results in differences in wealth and power in society. As such,
some groups become more privileged and powerful than others. These competing interests
produce tension in society between the two classes – the proletariat (workers) and the
bourgeoisie (capitalists).

 He also suggested that the dominant groups control the resources of society. In addition,
because of their greater power and influence, they are able to maintain the status quo through
the control of institutions, such as the school and the church.

Mustapha, 2013
 Karl Marx Cont’d


False consciousness (the inability of the proletariat to realize the true nature of their
oppression) will exist for some time, as the status quo remains in existence. However,
with the passage of time, the working class will develop a class-consciousness that
will enable it to function as one unified group. This class-consciousness (the
awareness that develops when the proletariat move from a class in itself to a class for
itself) will lead to the downfall of capitalism through a violent upheaval. Conflict will
lead to tensions and hostility in society over goals and values, and in consequence
will eventually be a change in the social order.


Conflict theory indicated that the capitalist society is not the ideal. With the
development of class-consciousness, the status quo will be overthrown, thereby
leading to communism, which would be a classless society.

Mustapha, 2013
 Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)

 He was concerned about the changes that occurred in Europe and the resulting instability they
created. Like other functionalists, he viewed society as a balanced system made up of interrelated and
interdependent parts (organic analogy).

 According to Durkheim, social order was created by an underlying set of moral rules, norms, beliefs
and values, which gives members of society the shared feeling of belonging, thereby keeping society
in harmony and equilibrium. This collective conscience (shared norms, values and beliefs) produces
and maintains social solidarity (integration among members of society) in society and therefore
contributes to the survival of the social system. He argued that, social facts, (unwritten rules created
by society) influence people’s thoughts and actions, thereby controlling them. Durkheim developed
and advocated the idea and use of positivism (the use of natural science methods and procedures in
the study of humans) to the study of social facts (norms, values and structures that are external to the
Emile Durkheim Cont’d

o He was the first sociologist to develop, apply and carry out a detailed
scientific study on suicide.
o The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)
o Le Suicide’ (1897)
o He also founded the first school of sociology in France in 1887.

Mustapha, 2013
 Max Weber (1864–1920)

 Max Weber was a German scholar whose writings were of relevance to economists,
sociologists and historians. Unlike the other two founding fathers who viewed society from
a macro-perspective, Weber introduced a completely different approach to the study of
society. He felt that social behaviour could not be adequately understood by looking at the
large structures studied by the functionalist theorists.
 He believed that the smaller groups should be studied in more depth and detail in order to
uncover the meanings underlying human social action. Weber describes a social action as
any action that has meaning, takes account of the presence of others and, as such, is oriented
in its course.

Mustapha, 2013
 Max Weber Cont’d

o Among Weber’s major works is The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904). In
this seminal work Weber disputes Marx’s theory of the revolutionary transformation of
society from ancient slavery to capitalism. Instead he posits that capitalism developed as a
result of the spread of ascetic Protestantism in Europe.

o Weber’s social action theory provided the foundation for the interactionist perspective later
developed by George Herbert Mead and others such as Erving Goffman, Blumer and
Cooley.

Mustapha, 2013
 Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)

o Talcott Parsons played an important role in elaborating upon Durkheim’s theory. In

some ways, he was also influenced by Max Weber’s social action theory. Weber’s
influence on Parsons is evident when he talks about the role of religion in society.

o Parsons argues that religion helps to provide meaning to human life especially in
times of disaster such as drought or famine. It was Weber who first theorized that
social action conveys specific meanings that determine other social actions. He
became one of the world’s most influential sociologists.

Mustapha, 2013.
 Talcott Parsons Cont’d

 Like Durkheim, he viewed society as a system made up of interrelated parts. He also noted
that a society has four functional prerequisites (preconditions that must exist to ensure the
survival of society) or needs: adaptation, goal attainment, integration and pattern
maintenance (latency). These prerequisites must be fulfilled for any society to survive.

 This is facilitated by the society’s institutions such as economy, government, schools and
families respectively. Parsons also felt that social change is gradual and evolutionary, and
may result in the transition of simple traditional societies into complex modern ones.
Societies change in order to adapt to their changing needs.
 Mustapha, 2013
 Robert Merton (1910–2003)

 Robert Merton refined Parsons’ work. He questioned the previously held assumption by
functionalists that as long as a phenomenon persists, it must be functional for society. Merton
believed that some institutions can at times be functional, non-functional or dysfunctional.

 He further claimed that a function, or dysfunction, may be obvious or intended (manifest) or hidden
and unintended (latent). Latent functions themselves can be negative or positive. Schools can bring
people together (manifest function) but some can develop life-long friendships such as marriage
(latent function).

 Another key aspect of Merton’s contribution is his work on Strain theory which emphasizes the
incongruence between what the culture calls for and what the structure allows. Merton posited that
strong societal emphasis on achievement is not equally met by the institutionalized means of
achieving success therefore individuals are strained to achieve and seek alternate channels of
attainment
 Mustapha, 2013
 Early writers in Sociology
• Auguste Comte’ : Positivism
• Emile Durkheim: Suicide, Religion& Family
etc.
• Karl Marx: Communist Manifesto
• Max Weber : Social Action, Bureaucracy and
Rationalization
• Talcott Parsons :The structure of social action,
Modernisation etc.
• Robert Merton :Crime & Deviance
• Peter Berger :Invitation to Sociology: A
Humanistic Perspective
 Development of Caribbean
Sociology

 Pioneers of Caribbean Sociology:

 Lloyd Brathwaite (1919-1995) contribution: Social stratification in Trinidad
 Pioneers of Caribbean Sociology:
 Lloyd Brathwaite (1919-1995) contribution: Social stratification in Trinidad
 M. G Smith (1921- 1993) contribution: Plural Society Thesis
 Factors that led to the development of Caribbean Sociology
 The coming of the Spaniards in 1942
 Near genocide of the Amerindian tribes
 African slavery
 Indentureship (East Indian & Chinese)
 Political Enfranchisement
Mustapha, 2013
  Early sociological thoughts in the Caribbean
Caribbean came mainly in the forms of literacy, political,
and economics writing with historical
Sociology underpinning. The literature focused on the
Cont’d period from slavery to independence in the
1960’s. Issues in Caribbean sociology range
from the legacy of slavery and colonialism to
development issues (1960’s) as well as
migration and “brain drain” which plagued
many of the islands.
 Today in the Caribbean much of these writing
form the basis of Sociology. Writers such as
Lloyd Brathwaite were influenced by the
contributions of Auguste Comte’, Emile
Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and Karl Marx.
Caribbean sociology like other sociology
throughout the world is influences by
mainstream theories such as Functionalism
and Conflict Theory
 Caribbean Sociologist Cont’d

 Lloyd Braithwaite (1919) in Social stratification in Trinidad (1953) examine the complex
nature of race, class and culture by merging Max Weber’s inner dynamics of society with
Talcott Parsons social system.. Macro perspective sociology provides a clear understanding
of Caribbean stratification.

 Michael Smith (1921-1993Jamaica): A Frame work for Caribbean Studies, he adapted J.S
Furnivall's (Plural Society theory). He developed a theoretical framework for understanding
the complexities of societies characterized by prominent cultural diversity.
 George Beckford (1934-1990): Persistent Poverty (1972) Beckford plantation model outlined
three areas of Caribbean economy.

 Raymond T. Smith (1925- present): The Negro Family in British Guiana: Family Structure
and social Status in the Villages (1956); Social Stratification, Cultural Pluralism and
integration in the West Indian Societies (1967)
 Caribbean Sociologists Cont’d

 Edith Clarke (1896- 1979): My Mother Who Fathered Me (1957). Clarke looks at migration
from the rural Caribbean communities. It examine the implication of migration on the
community and the impact on the livelihood of family members left behind.
 Hymie Rubenstein (1943): (1977- present) Family Land (1987) Rubenstein describe the
conditions of the ex-slaves response to scarcity of land. The ways the ex-slaves provided for
those who came after them by allowing his/her land to belong to none in particular, but
allowing all, even future generation the use of the land. Rubenstein sought to explain the
existence of several families occupying the same plot of land .
 Edward Kamau Braithwaite (1930- present) the process of Creolisation within Caribbean
society.
 Caribbean Sociologist

 Susan Craig, Sociological Theorizing in the English Speaking Caribbean: A Review (1982).
 R.T. Smith, The Negro Family in British Guiana: Family Structure and Social Status in the Villages
(1956).
 Bill Riviere, Contemporary Class Struggles and the Revolutionary Potential of Social Classes in
Dominica (1982).
 Angel Quintero Rivera, The Socio-Political Background to the Emergence of ‘The Puerto Rican Model’
as a Strategy for Development (1982).
 Paget Henry, De-colonization, Tourism and Class/Race Structure in Antigua (1981).
 Elsa Goveia, Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands at the End of the Eighteenth Century (1965).
 Derek Gordon, Class, Status and Social Mobility in Jamaica (1987).
 George Beckford, Persistent Poverty (1972).
 Rex Nettleford, Emancipation: The Lessons and the Legacy (1994).
 Lloyd Braithwaite, Social Stratification and Cultural Pluralism (1960).
 Mustapha, 2013
Reference

 Chinapoo, C., James, N.,& Lee-Paisley. ( 2014) Cape Sociology: Unit 1&2.
Pearson
 Mohammed, J. ( 2013) Sociology for CAPE examinations. Macmillan
Publishers Ltd.
 Mustapha, N. ( 2013) Sociology for Caribbean Students ( 2nd ed) Carlong
Publishers.