MEASURING OF HORIZONTAL

DISTANCES

Presented by: Group 2

BSARCH 2A
 OVERVIEW

1.) Measurement of Distance.

2. Electronic Distance Measurement.
3. Composition of Taping Party.
4. Correction Due to Slope.
5. Correction Due to Sag.
 INTRODUCTION

• In topographical surveys, you measure

distances along straight lines. These
lines either join two fixed points or run
in one direction starting from one
fixed point. They are plotted in the
field with pegs, pillars or ranging
poles.
 TAKE NOTE!

• You can measure on ground which has no slope, or

only a very small slope that is less than or equal to 5
percent.
• The distance measured on this type of ground will be
equal to or very close to the horizontal distance.
• When the slope of the terrain is greater than 5
percent, however, you will have to find the
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

PACING TAPING TACHYMETRY GRAPHICAL MECHANICAL PHOTOGRAMMETR

AND DEVICES Y
MATHEMATICA
L METHODS
 PACING

PACE- IS A NORMAL STEP ONE PACE

2 PACES = 1 STRIDE

PACE FACTOR- DISTANCE

COVERED BY ONE STEP. ONE PACE

ONE STRIDE
H O W TO M EA S U R E D I STA N C ES B Y PA C IN G

• You may measure distances roughly by pacing. This means you

count the number of normal steps which will cover the distance
between two points along a straight line. 
• To be accurate, you should know the average length of your
step when you walk normally. This length is called your normal
pace. Always measure your pace from the toes of the foot
behind to the toes of the foot in front.
F IN D IN G YO U R O W N PA C E FA C TO R

• To measure the average length of your NORMAL PACE (the pace

factor, or PF):
• Walk several times in a predetermined distance ex. 10 meters.
• Try doing it several times, be sure to note the number of paces it
took for you to reach 10 meters everytime.
• Now solve the PACE FACTOR by following this formula:

DISTANCE
PACED
AV. NUMBER OF PACES TO
COVER THE SAME
DISTANCE
 TAKE NOTE!

To prevent errors, count only double steps or strides, and

multiply the total count by 2;
take count of the hundreds with your fingers (using one finger
for each hundred steps);
take count of the thousands by ticking them off on paper;
• when crossing obstacles such as fences and small streams,
estimate the number of steps, strides or half-steps it would
take to cross them
EXAMPLE
• A LINE 100 METERS LONG WAS PACED BY A
SURVEYOR FOR (5) FIVE TIMES WITH THE
FOLLOWING STRIDES: 72, 71, 68, 70, 71.
ANOTHR LINE IS PACED FIVE TIMES WITH THE
FOLLOWING RESULTS: 634, 631, 632, 635, 637.
1. DETERMINE THE PACE FACTOR
STEP 1: CONVERT ALL STRIDES INTO PACE BY MULTIPLYING THEM
INTO TWO
72, 71, 68, 70, 71 = 144, 142, 136, 140, 142
STEP 2: SOLVE FOR THE PACE FACTOR
FORMULA:

DISTANCE PACED

AV. NUMBER OF PACES TO COVER

THE SAME DISTANCE
STEP 2: SOLVE FOR THE PACE FACTOR
100 METERS
FORMULA: 704
5
DISTANCE PACED
AV. NUMBER OF PACES TO COVER 100 METERS
THE SAME DISTANCE
140.8
SOLUTION:

100 METERS 0.71 PACE/ METER

144+142+136+140+142

5
• A LINE 100 METERS LONG WAS PACED BY A
SURVEYOR FOR (5) FIVE TIMES WITH THE
FOLLOWING STRIDES: 72, 71, 68, 70, 71. ANOTHER
LINE IS PACED FIVE TIMES WITH THE FOLLOWING
RESULTS: 634, 631, 632, 635, 637.
II. DETERMINE THE DISTANCE OF THE NEW LINE
STEP 1: FIND THE AVERAGE PACES NEEDED TO COVER
THE DISTANCE OF THE NEW LINE
634+631+632+635+637
5

STEP 2: SOLVE FOR THE DISTANCE

FORMULA:

D = AV. OF PACES TO COVER THE DISTANCE

OF THE NEW LINE × PACE FACTOR
STEP 2: SOLVE FOR THE PACE FACTOR
0.71 m/ PACE× 633.8 PACES
FORMULA:
0.71 m/ PACE× 633.8
D = AV. OF PACES TO COVER PACES
THE DISTANCE OF THE NEW D= 633.8 PACES=
LINE × PACE FACTOR 460.15 METERS

SOLUTION:

634+631+632+635+637

= 633.8 PACES
 TAPING

TAPING- THE MOST

COMMON WAY OF
MEASURING HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES.

IT IS USUALLY DONE BY
CALIBRATING THE TAPE
FROM POINT A TO POINT
B.
 TAKE NOTE!

Tapes can present some problems. Steel tapes can easily become
twisted and break. Cloth tapes are less precise than the others, since
they often vary slightly in length.
You should pull bands and tapes tight, so that they do not sag,
especially when you are measuring long distances. But, you should
avoid over-stretching them (especially fibreglass tapes), since this
could lead to errors.
EXAMPLES
LINEN TAPE WOVEN METALLIC STEEL TAPE
TAPE

SYNTHETIC TAPE INVAR TAPE

 TACHYME TE RY

- TECHNIQUES THAT
INDIRECTLY PROVIDE
REQUIRED
MEASUREMENTS.

- IT MEASURES INDIRECTLY
WITH THE HELP OF OPTICAL
INSTRUMENT CALLED
TACHEOMETER.
 METHODS

STADIA SUBTENSE BAR METHOD

• PROVIDE RAPID AND • CONVENIENT,

ACCURATE MEANS OF PRACTICAL AND
DETERMINING LONG PRECISE.
HORIZONTAL • PRECISELY TWO
DISTANCES. METERS LONG, THAT
• PRECISION IS CONSISTS OF
DETERMINED BY ROUNDED STEEL
DIFFERENT FACTORS. TUBE THROUGH
WHICH RUNS A THIN
INVAR ROD.
H O W TO M EA S U R E D I STA N C ES B Y S TA D IA M ET H O D

STEP 1: Set up the surveyor’s level at the point from which

you will measure the distance. Signal to your assistant to
place the levelling staff vertically at the next point of the line.
The distance between you and the staff may be several
hundred metres.
H O W TO M EA S U R E D I STA N C ES B Y S TA D IA M ET H O D

UPPER STADIA HAIR

HALF STADIA INTERVAL

HORIZONTAL STADIA HAIR

STADIA INTERVAL
LOWER STADIA HAIR

STEP 2: Look through the telescope and read the graduations

(in metres) on the levelling staff that line up with the UPPER
STADIA HAIR and the LOWER STADIA HAIR. Note these
measurements down in your field-book.
H O W TO M EA S U R E D I STA N C ES B Y S TA D IA M ET H O D

To find the stadia interval:

11 m – 10.66 m = 0.34 m
HALF STADIA INTERVAL

11 m
1cm
10.8 m

10.66 m
1cm

STADIA INTERVAL

STEP 3: Subtract the smaller reading from the larger reading.

This represents the interval between the two hairs, called
the STADIA INTERVAL.
H O W TO M EA S U R E D I STA N C ES B Y S TA D IA M ET H O D

B A
Stadia interval: 0.34 m
To find the DISTANCE:
D= STADIA INTERVAL×STADIA FACTOR
D= 0.34 m × 100
D= 34 m
STEP 4: To find the distance (in metres), multiply the stadia
interval by a fixed value called the STADIA FACTOR. It is given
for each telescope, but on most instruments this factor equals
100.
H O W TO M EA S U R E SU B T EN S E B A R M ETH O D

A
Formula:

D = cot a
2
T C S

D
A subtense bar 2000 m is set up near the middle of a transverse
line PQ. Using a theodolite set up at P, the angle subtended
angle reads 0°20’14”.
When the theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the
corresponding subtended angle was observed as 0°23’47”.
Determine the horizontal length of line PQ

)
)

P Q

D1
I D2
 D = 331.81+289.09
D = 628.90 m

1 1
= =
(0° 20”2 14’ tan (
( (
tan 0° 23’47”
2

= 331.81 m = 289.09 m
G R A P H IC A L A N D M AT H E M AT IC A L
METHODS
M ATH EM AT IC A L A N D G R A P H IC A L M ET H O D

Unknown distances may be determined through their

relationship with known distances geometrically.
DISTANCE BY M ECHANICAL DEVICES
 ODOMETER
a device attached to a wheel
for measuring surface
distances
- It rolls on the surface of
ground and converts the
number of revolution into a
slope-distance measurement.

- precision: 1/200 (on fairly

level terrain).
 MEASURING WHEEL .

a more portable and

self-contained
measuring device
than the odometer
- consists of a small
wheel attached to a
rod and handle
OPTICAL RANGE FINDER .

Monocular device with

built-in scales.
- usually handheld or
mounted on a small
tripod
- determines distances
by focusing
- precision: 1/50 (for
distances less than 500
meters)
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY

- measurement of images on a photograph

- consists of making precise measurements from
photographs and other imagining sources to determine
the relative locations of points in space.
- precision: 1/3000 to 1/5000
- used for various purposes such as: Topographic maps;
Classification of soils; Interpretation of geology;
collecting military information and for the Preparation of
ground maps.
.
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY
T YPES OF AE RIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
 VERTICAL

An example of a
photograph over a
flat terrain.
LOW-OBLIQUE .

An example of a
low-oblique
photograph over
a flat terrain.
HIGH-OBLIQUE .

An example of a
high-oblique
photograph over
a flat terrain.
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY
PH O TO G R A MM ETRY
E L E C T R O N IC D I S TA N C E
MEASUREMENTS
 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
(EDM)

- based on the basic principle that the time required

for a radio or light wave to travel from one end of a
line to the other is a function of the length measured.
- It is an electronic distance measuring instrument or
is a surveying instrument for measuring distance
electronically between two pairs through
electromagnetic waves.
 CLASSIFICATION

ELECTRO-OPTICAL MICROWAVE
INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS
• transmit wavelengths • Transmits microwaves
within or slightly beyond with wavelengths of 1.0
the visible region of the to 8.6 mm
spectrum. • consists of two identical
units which includes a
transmitter and a
receiver.
A D VA N TA G E S

- speed and accuracy

- lightweight and portable.
- low power requirement.
- easy. Ease set up and measurement over inaccessible terrain.
- applicable to short and long lengths.
- automatically measures, displays and records, slope range, azimuth,
vertical angle, horizontal distance, departure and latitude.
- slopes are internally reduced, therefore no need for computations
- automatically accumulates, and averages reading for slope range,
horizontal and vertical angles.
 GEODIMETER
First developed in SWEDEN and
was named as GEODIMETER
was also consider to be Visible
light Wave Instrument, these
instruments rely on propagation
of modulated light waves. During
night its range is up to 2.5km
while in day its range is up to
3km. Accuracy of these
instruments varies from 0.5mm
to 5mm/km distance.
 GEODIMETER

Acronym for GEODETIC

DISTANCE METER
- an electro-optical device
developed by ERIK
BERGSTRAND (1948)
- maximum range (5 to 10 km
during daytime, 25 to 30 km
during nighttime)
- precision: 1/200,000
 TELLUROMETER .

The instrument needs only

12 to 24V batteries. Hence
they are light and highly
portable.
Tellurumeter can be use in
day and night. The range of
this instrument is up to
100km.
 TELLUROMETER .
This instruments make use
of microwave, invented as
early as 1950 in south
Africa by Dr. T.L Wadly
and named then as
tellurumeter. World’s
second EDM instrument
- uses high frequency
microwave transmission
measuring distances up to
80 km day or night
- precision: 1/300,000
 TELLUROMETER .
Consist of two identical
units. One unit is used to as
masters unit and often as
remote unit. Just by
pressing the button, master
unit can be considered into
remove unit and a remote
unit into a measurement. It
needs two skilled person
operate.
MEASURING TAPES
 STEEL TAPE

“surveyor’s” or “engineer’s
tape”
ribbon of steel is 0.5 to 1.0
cm in width
0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 meters
for most conventional
measurements in surveying
and engineering work
 Click icon to add picture

METALLIC TAPES . .

also called woven tapes

- made of water-proof linen
fabric with woven small
brass, copper, or bronze
wires to increase its
strength and reduce
stretching
- for measuring short
distances
 NON-METALLIC . .

Woven from synthetic

materials with strong
dimensional stability
- coated with a plastic
material to reduce
effects of moisture,
humidity, and abrasion
 Click icon to add picture

INVAR TAPE .

alloy of nickel (35%) and

steel (65%). Very low
coefficient of thermal
expansion (1/30 to 1/60 that
of a steel tape)
“invariable” → less
affected by temperature
changes than steel tape
used for precise
measurements
expensive
 LOVAR TAPE .

Properties and costs

between conventional
steel tapes and invar
tapes .
 FIBERGLASS TAPE .

- woven within fiberglass a

longitudinal and transverse
pattern
- does not shrink or stretch
with changes in
temperature and humidity
- best used in vicinity of
electrical equipment
• Wires
- used before thin flat steel tapes were produced
- still used in hydrographic survey
• Builder’s Tape
- have smaller cross sections and lighter than steel
tape
- used in building construction
• Phosphor-Bronze Tape
- rust-proof tape to use in the vicinity of salt water
• Nylon-coated Steel Tape
- coated with permanently bonded non-conducting
nylon
- resistant to corrosion and immune to rust
TAPING ACCESSORIES
 RANGE POLE .

“flags” or “lining rods”

used as temporary signals
to indicate the location of
points or direction of lines,
and to mark alignment.
Usual length: 2.0 or 3.0
meters
Marked with alternate red
and white sections 30 cm or
50 cm long
 TAPE CLAMPING
HANDLE

Applies tension with

a quick grip on any
part of a steel tape
without causing
damage to the tape
or hands of the
tapeman.
 CHAINING PINS .

- “surveyor’s arrows” or
“taping pins”
- Stuck in the ground to
mark the ends of a
measured tape lengths or
partial tape lengths
- made of heavy wire and
painted with alternate red
and white bands
- sets of 11 pins carried on a
steel ring are standard
 TENSION HANDLE .

“Spring scale”
- Used at one end of a
tape for ensuring the
application of the
correct amount of
pull on the tape
during measurement
- used in precision
taping
• Tape Thermometer
- used to determine the temperature of the air and
the approximate temperature of the tape during
measurement
- about 10 to 15 cm long and is graduated from -30
to 50°C in 2 or 5 degree divisions

• Plumb Bob
- used for projecting the tape ends to the ground
when the tape must be suspended above the
measured line
- weights 0.25 kg and attached to 1.5 m long string
or cord which is free of knots
Wooden Stake or Hub
- made of 5 cm x 5 cm x 30 cm wood to mark points,
corners, or stations in the ground
Leather Thongs
- attached to a ring located near the zero-meter mark
of the tape to provide a comfortable grip on the tape
when measuring
Hand Level and Clinometer
- used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations when
measuring over rugged terrain, in approximately
determining difference in elevation of points, and in
other field operation where it is required to produce a
level sight
Tape Repair Kit
- allows emergency repairs to be made on damaged or
broken tapes
Crayons
- marking crayons used in surveying are usually
lumber crayons
- about 10 cm long and hexagonal in cross section
(usually in blue, yellow, and red color)
- used for marking points, corners, or stations by
indicating cross marks on paved roads, sidewalks or
walls
COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY

Head tapeman
Flag man
Recorder Rear
Tapeman
STEPS IN TAPING
1.Aligning the tape
2.Stretching the tape
3.Plumbing
4.Marking Full Tape Lengths
5.Tallying Taped Measurements
6.Measuring Fractional Lengths
 BREAKING TAPE

• The method for measuring directly horizontal

distance on sloping ground or through
obstacles that prevent the use of a full tape
length is referred to as breaking tape. This
process is similar to ordinary chaining on
level ground, with the exception that the
distances are measured using portions of a
tape.
 BREAKING TAPE

• This method is effective on measuring an uneven

terrain distance to ensure more accuracy in results.
 SLOPE TAPING

• The distance can be calculated by the use of

trigonometric identities if the angle is known.
• It can also be solved using Pythagorean theorem.
EXAMPLES
• A line XYZ is measured on the slope with two
segments. The first segment XY measures 824.45
m and the second segment YZ measures 1244.38
m. If the difference in elevation between points X
and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y and Z is 6.47
m, determine the horizontal length of the
measured line.
• Given:
• SLOPE 1 = 824.45 m
• SLOPE 2 = 1244.38 m
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
CORRECTION DUE TO
INCORRECT TAPE
LENGTH
CORRECTION DUE TO
ALIGNMENT
CORRECTION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

• WHEN MEASURING OR LAYING OUT DISTANCES, THE

STANDARD TEMPERATURE OF THE TAPE AND THE
TEMPERATURE OF THE TAPE AT TIME OF MEASUREMENT
ARE USUALLY DIFFERENT. A DIFFERENCE IN
TEMPERATURE WILL CAUSE THE TAPE TO LENGTHEN OR
SHORTEN, SO THE MEASUREMENT TAKEN WILL NOT BE
EXACTLY CORRECT. A CORRECTION CAN BE APPLIED TO
THE MEASURED LENGTH TO OBTAIN THE CORRECT
LENGTH.
CORRECTION DUE TO PULL/ TENSION

• IF THE TENSION IN THE TAPE IS GREATER OR LESS THAN

STANDARD, THE TAPE WILL STRETCH OR BECOME
SHORTER. TENSION APPLIED WITHOUT THE AID OF A
SPRING BALANCE OR TENSION HANDLE MAY VARY
FROM LENGTH TO LENGTH, RESULTING IN RANDOM
ERROR. TENSIONING EQUIPMENT CONTAINING ERROR
WOULD PRODUCE A SYSTEMATIC ERROR PROPORTIONAL
TO THE NUMBER OF TAPE LENGTHS. THE EFFECT OF THIS
ERROR IS GREATER ON A LIGHT TAPE HAVING A SMALL
CROSS- SECTIONAL AREA THAN ON A HEAVY TAPE.
CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

• A 30 m tape is supposed only at its end and

under a steady pull of 8 kg. If the tape
weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction
and the correct distance between the ends of
the tape.
CORRECTION DUE TO WIND

• Caused by blowing perpendicular to the

direction of taping.
• Error due to wind is similar in effect to error
due to sag.
• May be avoided by not conducting survey on
a windy day
 COMBINED
CORRECTION
EXAMPLES
 CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

• A civil engineer used a 100m which is of standard

length at 32°C is measuring a certain distance and
found out that the length of the tape has different
lengths at different tension we applied as shown
I. What tension must be applied to
the tape at 32°C so that would be
99.986m 10kg of standard length.
99.992m 14kg
100.003m 20kg II. What tension must be applied
to the tape at 40°C so that it
would be of standard length.
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

• A civil engineer used a 100m which

is of standard length at 32°C is
measuring a certain distance and
found out that the length of the
tape has different lengths at
different tension we applied as
shown

99.986m 10kg
99.992m 14kg
100.003m 20kg
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

• A civil engineer used a 100m

which is of standard length at
32°C is measuring a certain
distance and found out that the
length of the tape has different
lengths at different tension we
applied as shown

99.986m 10kg
99.992m 14kg
100.003m 20kg
SOURCES

• 2. Measuring Horizontal Distances. (2003, March 10). Fao.Org.

Retrieved February 20, 2022, from
https://www.fao.org/fishery/static/FAO_Training/FAO_Training/Genera
l/x6707e/x6707e02.htm#top

• K, N. S. (2019, December 6). Tape Corrections in Chain Surveying.

The Constructor. Retrieved February 20, 2022, from
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/tape-corrections-chain-surveying/3
6494/?amp=1

• Burkholder, E. F. (1991). Computation of Horizontal/Level Distances.

Journal of Surveying Engineering, 117(3), 104–116.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9453(1991)117:3(104)